LEARNING TO FUNCTION AS COMMERCE TEACHER, B.Ed 105.20 syllabus wise full note

 

EDU 105.20: LEARNING TO FUNCTION AS COMMERCE TEACHER

Marks :60 (External 50 + Internal 10)

Duration of Examination :2hrs

Module 1

Maxims, Approaches and Methods of Teaching Commerce (10 hrs)

 

1.1       Maxims of learning-simple to complex-Known to unknown-Particular to general-concrete to abstract

1.2                 Approaches of teaching Accountancy -Journal approach, Ledger approach, Balance sheet approach, Equation approach, Spiral development approach, Complete cycle approach

1.3                   Methods of Teaching-lecture method, inductive and deductive method, analytic and synthetic method, project method, case study, source method and market study

 

1.1 MAXIMS OF TEACHING

The word ‘maxim’ means a statement giving general truth or rule of conduct. A maxim regarding teaching is nothing but a simple statement, which acts as a guiding principle to the teacher in the task of imparting instruction. By practising the direction suggested by the maxims, instruction becomes effective. These maxims have not been wholly invented by any one educationalist. It is the by-product of the innumerable educational studies conducted for years.

 

Significance of maxims of teaching

1 The maxims of teaching are very helpful in obtaining active involvement and participation of the learner in the teaching-learning process.

2 By applying the maxims during instruction, the teacher can develop interest among the children and motivate them to learn.

3. Practising the maxims makes learning easy, effective and meaningful.

Some of the maxims of teaching are discussed below with its application in Commerce.

 

1. Proceed from known to unknown

This means that the new knowledge to be imparted should be linked with the experience already gained by the pupils. If the teacher links the new and unfamiliar knowledge to the knowledge already known to the pupils, learning becomes easy and Meaningful. This is because assimilation of new ideas can be made possible by this Correlation.

For example, in a commerce class, teacher can present the topic Sole proprietorship’ with the help of an example of a grocery shop. The teacher can ask the students to explain the features of a grocery shop which they have seen. By comparing with the already familiar knowledge regarding the grocery shop, the teacher can lead the students to the various aspects of the topic “Sole proprietorship’,

2. Proceed From Simple To Complex

This means that what is simple and easy must precede the difficult and complex. This maxim is not exclusively meant for the teaching-learning process, but also applicable for the organisation of the subject-matter of a course of study. That is, the subject matter should be divided into different aspects and all these aspects should be arranged according to the difficulty value of the content. In this context one may recollect the spiral approach. In the teaching process the simple ideas should be given in the beginning and they should be followed by the complex ones, The word simple means, simple from the point of view of the learner and not the teacher.

In commerce education, the teacher can follow this maxim for the effective teaching of any topic. For example, while teaching “Final Accounts’, initially the teacher can give simple problems with few adjustments. Later he can give more complicated problems with more adjustments. Actually, the whole syllabus of the subjects in Commerce at Higher Secondary level is prepared according to this maxim.

 

3. Proceed From Actual To Representative

Real, actual and natural objects appeal more to children than the representative objects. For example, in commerce class, while explaining the topic “Insurance and its functions’, with the help of a chart, diagram, source documents, etc. the students may not get a vivid picture of the processes involved. Instead, it is advisable to ‘arrange a visit to the nearest insurance company and show the actual things happening on the spot.

 

4. Proceed From Particular To General

This maxim is based upon the effectiveness of the inductive approach in drawing generalisations. As per this maxim, a number of particular examples should be given at first, and then the pupils should be enabled to arrive at some generalisations by closely observing these particular cases. The familiarity with the concrete. particular instances, will make the generalisation meaningful. A successful teacher is one who enables the learner to arrive at correct generalisations by himself, by analysing the particular cases.

For example, a commerce teacher can supply “Balance sheets’ of different organisations, before giving any idea regarding this. Then he can ask the students to arrive at some generalisation based on their observation. They could easily find out some common features such as:

i. A balance sheet has two sides:

 ii. Right side is known as asset side:

iii. Left side is known as liability side:

iv. The amounts on both sides are equal, etc.

They could also gain an idea regarding the items coming under both sides of a balance sheet.

 

5. Proceed From Empirical To Rational

Empirical knowledge is based on the knowledge gained through observation and direct experience. Rational knowledge is based on the logical analysis of the experience.

For example, the teacher can use this method in teaching the topic ‘Banks’. The teacher can ask the students to visit a nearby bank and to analyse the various tasks being executed there. Thus, he learns the abstract concepts like ‘savings bank count’, ‘current account’, etc. |

 

1.2 APPROACHES IN TEACHING OF ACCOUNTANCY

Accountancy is meant for systematically recording business transactions.  A commerce student should be familiarised with the accounting discipline. Certain approaches that could be followed in teaching of accountancy are given below:

a. The journal approach

b. The ledger approach

c. The balance sheet approach

d. The equation approach

e. The spiral development approach

f. The complete cycle approach

g. The single-entry approach

 

A. The journal approach

This approach is purely based on the accounting cycle. This is also the traditional method of teaching accountancy. The steps to be followed in this approach whit teaching accountancy are given below:

1. Introducing the concept ‘transactions’

2. Introducing the debit and credit aspects together with accounting rules

3. Analysing the business transactions in terms of debit and credit, applying & the rules

4. Introducing the concept ‘Journal and Journal entries’

5. Familiarising the procedure being followed in writing the Journal entries

6. Introducing the concept ‘Ledger Accounts’

7. Introducing the procedure involved in posting

8. Balancing the ledger accounts

9. Preparation of Trial Balance

10. Introducing the concept of final accounts

11. Preparation of Trading, Profit and Loss Account

12. Preparation of Balance Sheet

 

B. The ledger approach

As per this approach, more emphasis is given to ledger accounts. This approach does not present the subject matter in a systematic way. Here the accounting proceedings starts from the ledger accounts from where the learner moves back to journals. This approach is criticised on the ground that, it is a mechanical process which fails to share with the students the purpose and the use of the routine work of keeping the accounts. Also, the probable confusions that might arise cannot be clarified. The important steps in the approach are given below:

1. Defining debit and credit

2. Analysing the transactions in terms of debits and credits

3. Writing of debits and credits in ledger accounts

4. Balancing ledger accounts

5. Preparation of Trial Balance

6. Writing journal entries using debits and credits

7. Preparation of Trading, Profit and Loss Account.

8. Preparation of Balance Sheet.

 

In this approach the students have to move back from the third stage of accounting cycle. (i.e. preparation of Trading, Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet) to the second stage of the accounting cycle (i.e. preparation of Ledger Accounts and Trial Balance) and then to the first cycle (i.e. preparation of Journals). This is because, after completing the third stage only, the students can verify the complete accounting cycle.

 

C. The balance sheet approach

This approach is based on the maxim whole to parts. Initially the students are given a general idea regarding the complete accounting cycle and then detailed study Starts with the balance sheet. This approach is criticised because it violates the maxim simple to complex by reversing the order. The important steps under this approach are given below. It will be advisable to perform each step on subsequent days.

1. To start with, the complete Accounting cycle is introduced.

2. Then, a summary account of closing the income and expense account is presented.

3. Next, it is repeated. Some adjustment of inventory account also is added.

4. Then, liabilities account is introduced after the review of previous work.

5. Next, the teacher takes up Assets Accounts but only after review of previous work.

6. Then, after review of previous work, some more adjustment work is added.

7. Now more formal statements about accounts be maintained.

8. Finally the scrutiny of accounts and then journalising be introduced.

At the end, a practice set that contains all the forms of Journals, Ledgers, Worksheets and statements is taken up. Students will then be asked to complete the entire cycle by working on it.

 

D. The equation approach

Accounting equation is a statement of equality between the debits and credits. It signifies that the assets of a business are always equal to the sum of the liabilities and the capital. When this relationship is show in the equation form, it is known as ‘Accounting Equation’. Thus, Assets = Liabilities + Capital

Liabilities = Assets — Capital, and Capital = Assets — Liabilities; are the accounting equations. It is also known as balance sheet equations.

The equation approach is based on the accounting equations. The important steps in this approach are given below:

1. Introducing accounting equations.

2. Introducing the concept of increase in Assets, Liabilities, Capital (Owner's Equity), Revenues and Expenses with the help of a sample balance sheet.

3. Introducing the rules of debit and credit. Here the rules are as follows:

Nature of Account                              Debit                                       Credit

     Assets                                           Increase                                   Decrease

               Liabilities                                       Decrease                                 Increase

              Owner’s equity                                Decrease                                  Increase

               Revenues                                        Decrease                                  Increase

              Expenses                                         Increase                                    Decrease

Thus, all the transactions may be divided into the following five categories:

i. Transactions related to assets

ii. Transactions related to liabilities

iii, Transactions related to owner's equity

iv. Transactions related to revenues

v. Transactions related to expenses.

4. Introducing the concept ‘Double Entry System’

5. Preparing journal

6. Preparing ledger accounts

7. preparing trial balance

8. Preparing Trading, Profit and loss Account

9. Preparing Balance Sheet.

 

E. The spiral development approach

In this approach the complete cycle is developed by adding some additional knowledge while repeating each step. Every time a part of the complete cycle is retaught and a part of it is expanded. The development of learning is just as in the spiral approach of curriculum transaction. Following are the major steps under this approach:

1. Introducing the concept of ‘transactions’ in a business.

2. Transactions + Debit and Credit aspects.

3. Transactions + Debit and Credit + Journals.

4. Transactions + Debit and Credit + Journals + Journalising.

5. Transactions + Debit and Credit + Journals + Journalising + Ledger accounts.

6. Transactions + Debit and Credit + Journals + Journalising + Ledger accounts + Posting.

7. Transactions + Debit and Credit + Journals + Journalising + Ledger accounts + Posting+ Balancing.

8. Transactions + Debit and Credit + Journals + Journalising + Ledger accounts + Posting+ Balancing +Trial Balance.

9. Transactions + Debit and Credit + Journals + Journalising + Ledger accounts + Posting+ Balancing + Trial Balance + Trading, Profit and Loss Account.

10. Transactions + Debit and Credit + Journals + Journalising + Ledger accounts + Posting + Balancing + Trial Balance + Trading, Profit and Loss Account + Balance Sheet.

 

F. The complete cycle approach

This approach is a good review device and could be adopted well in remedial teaching. It requires that the entire exercise involved in the complete cycle be done on one sheet of paper in such a way that the complete picture (gestalt) is visible in its totality. This exercise is repeated for several days on different examples. If this approach is adopted it gives a thorough and complete knowledge of accounting procedures to the students. It also follows the holistic approach. Following are the major steps:

1, Students are supplied with a typical written problem on complete cycle.

2. The students are made to make a preliminary study of the problem.

3. Teacher discusses with and explains to pupils the nature of the problem.

4. Students are asked to rewrite the same problem in another sheet of paper.

5. Their doubts may be cleared, but the ‘why’ of things has to be kept in abeyance.

6. Help pupils to master the basic cycle.

7. Introduce a new concept after ensuring that the basic cycle is mastered.

8. Repeat the basic cycle every time while adding new concepts.

This approach follows the maxim whole to parts and it is very difficult to follow.

 

G. Single entry approach

In this approach records of Assets, Liabilities and Capital are maintained but no account of the sources of Profit and Loss Account is maintained. In this approach an incoming asset is debited and outgoing asset is credited. An entry is made either for credit or for debit. A cash payment for purchases or expenses is always credited to cash only. In this approach the journal does not make any distinction between debit and credit. This approach is seldom used in business, but it is still used in small shops. This approach does not give a correct picture of the financial position of the business. It provides only the position of debtors and creditors.

 

1.3 METHODS OF TEACHING

 

Meaning of the term ‘teaching method’

A teaching method in general is meant as the method or process adopted for realising a preconceived educational goal through a series of teacher - pupil activities meant for the purpose. The method of teaching refers to the regular ways or orderly procedure employed by the teacher in guiding the pupils in order to accomplish the pre-determined objectives of learning. As applied to class-room teaching, method is a series of related and progressive acts performed by the teacher and the pupils to accomplish the general and specific aims of the lesson. It involves regular steps to guide the mental processes of the learner in mastering the subject-matter being presented to him for the realisation of the anticipated goal.

 

 Major Methods In Teaching Of Commerce

Different methods of teaching have been proposed by different educational thinkers in education. It is desirable for the teacher to know about all of them, so that he ca® make a rational choice for himself. An attempt has been made to discuss the following methods in detail, as they will be applicable for the relevant areas in commerce education.

 i. Lecture method ii. Project method, iii. Problem solving method

iv. Inductive - Deductive method, v. Analytical and synthetic method,

vi. Case study method vii. Market survey method viii. Demonstration method,

ix. Lecture-cum-demonstration method x. Source method xi. Heuristic method

 

1. Lecture method

Lecture method can be considered as the oldest teaching method. It is based on the philosophy of idealism. Lecture is generally described as a teacher centered teaching method involving one-way communication mostly by way of verbal exposition. In the field of commerce education, it has great significance. Nowadays in Higher Secondary Classes most of the teachers are using lecture method. However, all lectures are not effective and interesting and a number of drawbacks have been pointed out by educators. But lecture continues to be one of the common methods of teaching as it has certain conveniences. The student teacher ratio can be large, which in turn help to reduce financial commitment of an institution. It is a flexible method as teachers can adopt themselves to the subject matter, achievement level of students, time limit, etc. A competent teacher can make the lecture meaningful and interesting by posing problematic situations and by using interesting and illustrative mediators.

 

1. Psychological principles leading to effective lecturing

i. The delivering of lecture should be in an active mode.

ii. A lecturer should think from point of view the students. It should not be a mere exposition of his subject mastery.

iii. The lecturer should present the subject matter in a systematic way. All the concepts should be sequentially arranged and clearly explained.

iv. The lecturer should use the language which is easily understandable to each student. It should be simple, unambiguous and lucid.

V. The lecturer should sustain interest and attention by posing challenging situations and by interspersing the lecture with mediators like interesting examples. anecdotes, etc.

 

2. How to prepare and deliver more effective lectures

1. Don't be so rigid with the plan of the talk. Changes should be made according ty the nature of the learners. For example, in a Higher secondary class, the learner, generally found to experience tension. This tension should be released and 4 receptive mood created before starting the actual talk.

2. It is probably better to outline the lecture notes than to write everything to be exposed in full. Using a properly prepared outline for exposition will avoid the tendency to read out the lecture, which might lead to monotony.

3. Distribute among the audience appropriate reading materials prior to the presentation. This encourages pupils to think in advance about the content to be covered.

4. A good beginning is an important factor for an effective lecture. A lecturer must capture the learner’s attention. Make use of stimulating audio visuals, demonstrations and provocative questions. Pose leading questions or problems at the beginning of the lecture to provide direction for the learners as to what is most important. This would also help to stimulate interest.

5. As already indicated intersperse the exposition with catching mediators.

6. The appropriate use of humour is a wonderful means of stimulating attention and imagination.

 

3. Tips for delivering a good lecture

There are several strategies to increase the impact of a lecture. Some of them are listed below:

i. Set a learning climate.

ii. Limit the quantum of information according to the time allotted.

iii. Speaking should be clear, loud enough and maintaining appropriate pace.

Iv. Use conversational rather than pedantic, authoritative tone.

v. Look at the learner, while lecturing.

vi. Ensure gestures and other body movements, but don’t over do it.

vii. Complement the lecture with other instructional methods.

 

4. Advantages of the lecture method

i. It is easy for the teacher to prepare and execute.

ii. Large number of students can be handled at the same time.

iii. The teacher can express his ideas very effectively by his tone, gestures and facial expressions.

iv. It provides better opportunity for clarification of important things.

v. It can be organized in accordance with the principles of educational psychology.

vi. This method is more helpful in introducing a new topic. 

vii. Lecture method develops in the learner’s habits of close attention.

viii. It provides opportunities of correlating events and subjects.

 

G. Disadvantages of the lecture method

i. Lengthy lectures can easily lead to boredom.

ii. It does not encourage pupil activity unless the lecturer is extremely competent.

iii. The students are generally passive recipients.

iv. The average student may not be able to fix up his attention to a lecture for a long duration. During this span his attention may be diverted.

v. In this method more content may be covered by a teacher, but less learning may take place.

vi. A lecture may become monotonous to the pupils after a while. Very few teachers can sustain interest up-to the end.

vii. There is no way to know the reactions of the pupils, because in most cases there is no interaction between the teacher and the pupil.

 

6. How to evaluate a lecture?

The evaluation can be either formative or summative. The evaluator can collect data with the help of an evaluation tool. The evaluation tool may contain the following factors.

i. The speaker's subject competence.

ii. The language used.

iii. The degree of transparency of presentation.

iv. Extent of realisation of objectives.

v. Use of audio-visual aids and other mediators.

vi. Attention of the pupils.

vii. Extent of stimulus variation.

viii. Appropriateness of the presentation to the content.

II. PROJECT METHOD

This method is the direct outcome of John Dewey’s pragmatic philosophy. In this method of curriculum transaction, the curriculum is translated into activities to be performed by the learners in a natural setting. This is made possible by designing projects related to the theme of the curricular area being transacted. It is based on the idea that; true knowledge is acquired not merely by reading books nor b attending lectures but by purposive planning and doing by the learners themselves for the purpose of handling problematic life situation. “Learning by doing’ ‘Learning by living’ ‘problem orientation’ and ‘working in natural settings’ are the four cardinal Principles of this method.

 

1. Definition

Dr. Kilpatrick defined project as, “A whole hearted, purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment.” According to Stevenson, “A Project is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting”.

 Professor Ballard defines it as, “A bit of real life that has been imparted into the school.”

 

2. Principles of the project method

Some of the basic principles of the project method are given below:

i. Purpose: The project should be purposeful. Every project chosen should be useful an practicable to the daily life of the pupil. There should be some set aims for each project and the students should have a clear idea of what they are to do and for what purpose.

ii. Activity: The project should cater to the natural tendency of young boys and girls to engage in activity. The teacher should allow them to think and plan independently, to exercise their judgement and to work out the project to the best of their ability, i.e. the students should be made active both physically and mentally.

iii. Utility: The experience gained from the project should be useful. Activities undertaken must be completed and the knowledge gained therefrom must lead to further acquisition of knowledge. iv. Freedom: There should be full freedom of the students to work on their own accord. Project should grow out of student's own purpose and needs. But they can get guidance from mature minds.

v. Economical: The project should be economical and the purpose of the project should be achieved without any waste of time or mon or effort.

vi. Challenging: The project should be challenging and oriented to problem solving. Psychologists have proved that, students would prefer to do a task which required reasonable amount of effort.

vii. Feasibility: The project should be feasible. Before giving final approval to the project, this factor also should be considered.

 

3. Steps involved in a project

A project is a wholehearted purposeful activity aimed at teaching the students. This activity will bear fruit only when it is carried out according to a set procedure. The various steps or-stages in the project and the teacher's function at each stage are explained below.

 

i. Providing a situation:

The first step in the procedure is provision of a suitable situation where the students find some scope for carrying out a useful activity. For this purpose, the teacher should always be on the lookout for curricular or co-curricular situation that would provide ‘problematic act’ that could be carried to completion in a natural setting. An intelligent and alert teacher can suggest such situations and help the students in selecting their own project. The situation may be provided in many different ways such as, conversing with the class on different topics of interest to them, taking the students out for a significant study trip; say, visiting a factory, co-operative society, presenting a complex problematic situation, the solution of which warrants consented effort of a working group.

ii. choosing and Purposing:

The most important thing about a project is purposing part. After the students have been provided with problematic situations, the next step is choosing the project. In this, the teacher should guide the students in such a way that they are in a position to choose a good project by themselves. Sometimes the teacher may be tempted to choose the project himself and to make the class accept his choice. This is a-wrong practice and will defeat the purpose of the project method. The aim of the project method is to develop the ability to think, make proper choice, fix up feasible goals or purpose, plan and execute a project, etc. among the students. The teacher is only a guide. This guidance should in no way hinder the development of the students. The final choice of the project must be made by the students.

iii. Planning:

Planning the project is very important because the success of a project depends upon good planning. Planning should be done the students themselves under the guidance of the teacher. The teacher begins by drawing the attention of the students to the needs of a plan. This is followed by discussion in which all participate. It is not possible to make a detailed and well-thought out plan at once. It requires time and much consideration of the required and available inputs in relation to the output anticipated.

iv. Executing the project:

At this stage the teacher helps the students in dividing the project selected b them into its major components and to distribute these among the participants according to the plan. This step is really the most time consuming one in the project and requires a great deal of patience on the part of the teacher and sincere effort on the part of the students. Here, a series of activities have to be undertaken by the students. They may be busy in collecting information, visiting places and people, collecting inputs, preparing tables and charts, etc. At this stage, guidance and careful direction from the teachers are most essential. Teacher Should ensure that the work is distributed among the students according to their abilities and interest. At the same time every student should have a role in the project as a whole.

 

v. Evaluating the project:

It is yet another important stage in the project method which should never be omitted. This should start at the time of execution itself. The work should be monitored and guided by by taking feedback and ensuring that progress is made in the desired direction leading to the ultimate goal. After _e project has been executed, the students must review their work and try to see what mistakes they have committed in planning or in carrying out their project. They also find out whether the work has been carried out in accordance with the plan laid down in the basis of the - output anticipated and the one realised. Thus, at this stage a sort of self-criticism is done by the students which is a very valuable form of training. The teacher’ role at this stage of the project is to provide students with necessary standards of evaluation and to guide them evaluate in the light of these standards.

 

vi. Recording: A project may be well selected, well planned and well executed, but if nothing is recorded about it, it will fade away from memory, with the passage of time, leaving nothing. So, it is necessary that students are encouraged to maintain a complete record of all activities connected with the project which is known as a project record. In this record everything relating to the project starting from the choice of the project to the self-appraisal made by the students should be entered. A well-maintained project report can serve a very useful purpose.

 

4. Role of the teacher in the project method

Though the teacher plays only an advisory role, his role is nevertheless vital. The following are expected from a teacher in relation with the project work.

i. He should provide occasions for shy pupils to come forward and contribute something towards the success of the project.

ii. He should learn with the students and should not claim to know everything.

iii. He should provide a democratic atmosphere in the class so that the students can express themselves freely without any fear of the teacher.

iv. He should be alert all the time to see that the project is running on its right lines.

v. He should have a thorough knowledge of the abilities of individual students so as to allot them suitable works relating to the project.

vi. He should have initiative, tact and zeal for learning and should be well-experienced.

vii. He should always bear in mind that he is neither a dictator nor a commander, but a friend, guide, and working partner.

 

5. Types of projects

W.H. Kilpatrick classifies the projects in to the following four types.

i. The producer type: In this type of projects, the emphasis is laid down on the | actual construction of a material, object or article.

ii. The consumer type: in this type of projects, the main objective is to obtain either direct or vicarious experience.

jii. The problem type: In this type of projects the chief purpose is to solve a problem involving the intellectual processes.

iv. The drill type: In such a project the objective is to attain mastery of a skill.

 

6. Merits of the project method

 i. it is original.

ii. It provides a good deal of independence to the pupils.

iii. It has practical value. Pupils themselves are given opportunity to solve their problems.

iv. This method follows psychological principles.

v. There is no place for the application of rote memory.

vi. The different subjects of study can be meaningfully correlated and integrated.

vii. There is a good deal of stress on sociability and dignity of labour. Pupils get training in better adjustment with others. They become willing to do manual work.

viii. It is very useful for creating a democratic outlook. ix. Being able to work in a realistic and natural setting it gives training for successful living.

x. Project method provides a good relief to the backward children by providing them opportunities to participate in practical activities.

 

7. Demerits of the project method

i It is too expensive. It requires lot of money for equipment.

ii. It is impractical in certain respects.

iii. In this system, very little time is given for strengthening the experiences. It is so because there is no time for practice.

 iv. There is a good deal of wastage of time.

v. It is very difficult to complete the prescribed curriculum through projects. 

vi. It is very difficult to select projects of social value

vii. Itis very difficult to evaluate the achievement of the pupils.

viii. For successful working of projects, efficient and resourceful teachers are needed. It imposes heavy burden on students,

ix. There can be no mastery of the subject of study.

x. It upsets the routine work of the school.

However, working on projects can supplement other methods of instruction. Many units of Commerce yield to planning and execution of projects. For example, ‘A Comparative study on the marketing of dairy products’ can be carried out as a project from the unit ‘Marketing Management’.

 

III. Problem solving method

1. Meaning

Problem solving is the scientific process of solving problems. It pre-supposes the existence of a problem in the learning and teaching situation. A problem is a that warrants additional effort on the part of the learner to arrive at feasible solution leading to the attainment of developmental objectives. Problem solving is a method in which a person uses his ability to analyse a problem confronted in order to arrive at a solution. This method encourages a learner to adopt right thinking and learning.

2. Definitions

“Problem solving is a planned attack on difficulty for finding out satisfactory solution”. - M.N. Singh and S.B. Maheshwary.

“A problem exists for an individual when he has a definite goal, which he cannot reach by the behaviour pattern which he has already available”. - Gates

 

3. Characteristics of a good problem in a learning situation

Any problem posed before the learners should possesses the following characteristics. It should be:

i clear and definite.

ii. challenging and hence generating, curiosity and interest.

iii. suitable to the age, needs, and mental and physical capability of pupils.

iv. related to the actual life.

v. understandable to the learners who face it.

vi. thought provoking.

vii. correlated to the existing knowledge of the learners.

viii. worthwhile and of practical value.

ix. workable with the resources available.

x. feasible within the time available.

 

4. Teacher's role in problem solving

The following points should be kept in mind by the teacher, while adopting problem solving method in a class room situation. The teacher should:

i. give proper guidance to the students from the beginning till the solution is reached.

ii. extend optimum help to each student in case difficulties are experienced.

iii. supply only adequate information regarding the problem.

vi. keep rapport with students, for the smooth completion of the work.

vii. maintain the spirit of discovery among students.

 

5. Steps in problem solving method

1. Sensing the problem: A problem arises out of a situation. The teacher creates a challenging situation in which the students feel the presence of the problem and need for solving it. The problem situation may be created by discussions on various topics, survey of the surrounding conditions, and the present needs of the students.

2. Interpreting, defining and delimiting the problem: When once the problem is raised the teacher helps the pupils to interpret and identify the exact problem involved through heuristic questions.

3. Suggesting hypothesis: regarding feasible procedures leading to the solutions. The teacher can call for these in the light of steps i and ii.

4. Collecting the relevant data: The attack of the problem starts with the systematic identification and collection of the data, relevant to the problem. This would be suggested by the hypotheses regarding solutions made in step (iii). Suggestion from the students regarding the relevant material may be invited. The teacher can heuristically lead pupils to the sources to be tapped. If the problematic situation is very conplex and warrants a large pool of data. The pupils may be asked to read books from library, search on internet, study of charts, graphs and other reference materials. They have to contact experts in the field or to make field trips even.

5. Organising and evaluating the data: The data collected are then properly organised and evaluated. The unnecessary or irrelevant data are avoided. Significancy of data has to be examined and additional data if required should be pooled.

6. Formulating tentative solution: The pupils go on generating hypotheses on feasible solutions connect these with relevant data and make tentative inferences.

7. Arriving at the final solution: This is the most important step. The tentative solutions are pooled together and tested for acceptance or rejection. Discussion and argument by students with intervention of the teacher are necessary. Everyone should be allowed to express his views freely. This phase of the problem solving demands an unusual amount of guidance and patience on the part of the teacher. Also, he has to profusely extent guidance. Finally, the students arrive at a conclusion collectively.

 

6. Application of problem-solving method in Commerce

The commerce teacher can use this method effectively for teaching different topics. Topics like banking, production, trading, marketing, etc., pose a variety of problematic Situations demanding intelligent decisions. Some of the examples of such problems in Commerce are given below:

i. How can adverse effects of globalisation on retail traders be solved under Indian conditions?

ii. How can co-operative societies be organised to benefit the needs of villages?

iii. How can warehouses be organised to help in price stabilization?

iv. In what ways can the adverse effects of ‘E-Commerce’ be solved?

7. Distinction between Project and Problem-solving method

Project method	Problem Solving Method
i. More stress on physical activities leading to concrete product ii. Comparatively less importance to mental activities. iii. Students get practical experience	Physical activities resulting in a material product is rather absent ii.  Comparatively more importance to mental activities iii.  Less possibility for practical experience

 

IV. THE INDUCTIVE - DEDUCTIVE METHOD

Induction and deduction are two techniques of reasoning used for arriving at generalisations and valid conclusions. These could be adopted for developing effective methods in teaching concepts, principles and processes in Commerce

 

1. Inductive method

In inductive method, thinking moves from particular to general. Thus, from concrete examples the students arrive at a generalisation. Conclusions are arrived from various examples or cases. In this method generalisation or rules are discovered by pupils themselves by studying various examples. This approach is mainly developmental. It gives opportunity for active participation by the student in the process of discovery. This reduces the dependence on memorisation.

            The commerce teacher can use this method in classroom teaching. For example, in a ‘Business studies’ class, the teacher can give a problem to find out the ‘Role of cooperative banks in the development of rural economy’. The students will collect data regarding a number of services rendered by co-operative banks and arrive at generalisations.

In an accountancy class, the teacher can present various transactions and their recording. Then the students may be asked to examine these transactions and arrive at generalisations regarding correct rules and procedures in accounting. The students will never forget the rules if they discover by themselves.

Merits

1. The child develops independence and self-confidence.

2. This is a psychological method.

3. It is a logical method.

4. It gives opportunity for active participation for students.

5. It reduces dependence on memorisation and homework.

Limitations

1. it is laborious and time consuming.

2. It is not suitable for all topics.

3. Application of the generalisations is not attempted in inductive thinking.

4. The insufficient data may sometimes lead the learner to wrong generalisations.

 

2. Deductive method

In this procedure, thinking moves from the general to the particular; abstract to concrete. In this method the learner assumes a rule or generalisation and verify or apply it to interpret particular situations.

 

For example, in a ‘Business Studies’ class, teacher explains the term ‘Delegation of authority’ and at the same time presents examples for the same. Then, the students are asked to verify the term with these examples. Here, with this verification, the students get a clear idea regarding the concept.

In an ‘Accountancy’ class also the teacher can use the deductive approach. For example, when once the general principles regarding preparation of balance sheets have been resented in the class, the teacher can give specimen of balance sheets of various organisations and ask the students to verify the features which they have already studied and point out defects, if any.

 

Distinction between Deductive and Inductive method

Deductive Method	Inductive method
1. General to particular approach 2. It is a method of verification 3. Very quick method as generalisations are accepted 4. Encourages dependence on accepted principles 5. Learner gets ready-made knowledge 6. Downward movement	Particular to general approach It is a method of discovery Very slow method as a new generalisation has to be discovered Principles are independently generated   Learner gets first-hand information Upward Movement

 

As methods of teaching induction or deduction cannot be complete by itself. They have to supplement each other. To begin with inductive thinking can be adopted, but when once a generalisation is arrived at it has to be subjected to verification deductive thinking. That is why the ‘inductive-deductive approach’ is considered as a complete method in the teaching of generalisations. Start with induction and end with deduction.

 

V. ANALYTICAL AND SYNTHETIC METHODS

Analytical and Synthetic methods can be effectively used in Commerce Education at Higher Secondary level. The details are given below.

1. Analytical Method: The word analytic is derived from the term analysis, which means to break up a thing into its constituent elements. Under this method we are going deep into a problem, phenomena, etc., and finding out its hidden aspects. Here we are starting with the known facts and proceeded with a thorough analysis for finding out the unknown facts. This method will improve the _"MsnraS5i! among the learners. For example, after teaching the definition of Accounting according to American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), the basic function of accounting can be generated through analytic method. An analysis of the definition will bring out the functions as ‘recording’, ‘classifying’, ‘summarising’ and ‘interpreting’ of financial transactions. Moreover, various problems in Accounting can be easily transacted through analytical method.

 

Merits: Following are the merits of Analytical Method.

1. Active participation can be assured.

2. Concepts and situations become very meaningful.

3. Thinking skills of the learners can be fostered.

4. The spirit of discovery learning among the learners can be developed.

5. Problems can be solved in tune with the pace of the learners.

6. Learning process happening in a learner can be observed and analysed by the teacher.

Demerits

1. It is uneconomic because it is time consuming and lengthy.

2. It is not applicable in all situations.

3. Lack of subject competency and incapability of the teacher to present the subject matter in a systematic way will adversely affect the learning process.

 

2. Synthetic Method:

The word synthetic is derived from the term synthesis, which means to combine together. As per this method we are combining different aspects to arrive at a generated solution. It is a process of putting together the bits of information and perceiving a new knowledge in its totality. Here we are linking together different aspects to create a new phenomenon. For example, by combining and systematically organising various aspects like ‘Capital’, ‘Creditors’, ‘Bills Payable’, ‘Debtors’, ‘Fixed Assets’, ‘Cash’, etc., can constitute the concept ‘Balance Sheet’. In a Business Studies class, synthesis of the features of a company form of business organisation will constitute the concept of a company.

 

Merits

1. This method saves time because deduction of knowledge is happening here.

2. This method is very convenient to apply for teachers in a classroom situation.

3. This method is highly useful in transacting most of the topics in commerce.

 

Demerits

1. This method makes the student passive listeners.

2. This method will decrease the thinking skill of the learners.

Analytical and Synthetic methods are interrelated and complement to each other. While applying in a classroom situation, for effective teaching both methods should be applied together. By the combined use of this, the classroom teaching will become more effective and interesting.

 

VI. CASE STUDY METHOD

A case study has a different meaning depending on how it is used. To some people, it has the meaning as in a legal case; to the researcher a case may appear as a vehicle for testing hypotheses. We are concerned with the form of case study most suited to our objectives in commerce education. This form of case study will present the student with a complex problematic situation that stands in the way of smooth functioning of a commercial concern. Solutions are not evident because of the complexity of the Situation. So, he has to analyse the case and explore the exact nature of the problem as well as the causes leading to it. At this stage of study, the aim is not to find out a solution to the problem, but to train him in the technique of in-depth analysis and decision making to be applied in future. To start with good models of case studies — relevant to the subject may be presented. Based on these case studies discussions or debates can also be conducted in a classroom situation.

In a commerce class, teacher can assign various case situations and ask the Students to prepare reports on this. Some topics for case study is given below:

1. Conflict in management of an organisation.

2. Loss of market share of a product.

3. Impact of globalisation at agriculture sector.

 

VII. MARKET SURVEY METHOD

Modern markets operate in a dynamic environment. Here a businessman always seeks information regarding the trends in the market. In order to know the fluctuations in a market, he has to depend on market surveys. It refers to collection of data by interviewing a limited number of people selected from a large group. In this method, information is obtained by asking the questions to the selected respondents.

A commerce teacher can use the market survey as a method of teaching a complex concept or a process involving a variety of ideas. For example, a commerce teacher will have to help the pupils to develop deep understanding of the various aspects involved in the functioning of a ‘market’. Instead of presenting these ideas through theoretical exposition, the pupils can be made to gather the ideas by conducting a ‘market survey’. This will make the information gathered practical oriented, functional, realistic and meaningful. The teacher should take initiative in guiding the students in conducting the survey. Here the maxim ‘concrete to abstract’ is followed.

How to conduct a market survey?

It is very significant on the part of a teacher to think about the stages of a market survey.

 Stage - 1. identification of a complex problematic situation

In order to carry out the survey programme, the teacher should discuss with the students an appropriate complex situation and convince them of the need for gathering information directly. It is better to divide the entire students of the class into different groups and assign specific tasks.

Stage - 2. Planning the survey technique

After identifying the problem and specifying the tasks and objectives, the second step is to find out the best procedure for gathering information. Depending on the source of the information required tools could be selected. For example, questionnaires could be used if the information have to be gathered from persons. Interview schedules, observations schedules, etc. could also be used. —

Stage - 3. Collection of data

After determining the source of data, the next step is the actual collection of data. Proper planning in terms of time schedule, etc. has to be done under the leadership of the teacher. For convenience, he can select a leader for each group. The teacher should clarify the doubts of the students, while collecting data.

Stage- 4. Analysis and interpretation of data

The data should be tabulated and classified. Here, statistical techniques can be used for analysing the data. Students can arrive at generalisation and conclusions on the basis of the results of such analysis.

Stage - 5. Preparing the survey report

Based on the survey, each group is responsible to prepare a report. The teacher should evaluate the reports

 

VIII. DEMONSTRATION METHOD

Demonstration is another useful instructional method which is employed in teaching Commerce. Demonstration means showing how something is to be done or not to be done. Through demonstration a teacher presents a skill before the students. The student's role is that of the observer and recorder of information and skills. In a higher secondary class, the commerce teacher can adopt this method especially when something related to the development of skill is being taught. For example, ‘Journalising’, ‘Posting’, etc. requires skill which has to be demonstrated. Demonstrations are most effective when followed by a corresponding student-activity.

 

IX. LECTURE-CUM-DEMONSTRATION METHOD

Demonstrations serve a useful purpose in teaching. Good demonstrations are good communication media. The students’ keen observation during demonstration enable them to comprehend ideas meaningfully through the related ‘enaction’. A demonstration is not limited to material objects. It involves observation of a skill, a process, functioning of a system or a working model. The observation is enhanced by the explanation provided. A lecturer can combine demonstration with his lectures, so that the students through the observation of the demonstration, along with the explanation given in the beginning can comprehend the theme of the lecture more effectively. This strategy of using both demonstration and lectures at the same time is known as lecture-cum-demonstration method. This is a modified form of the lecture method. Which helps in making it dynamic.

 

X. SOURCE METHOD

Source method implies the use of. original sources and materials while teaching. A source provides first hand experiences and leads to better understanding of the subject. There are primary sources as well as secondary sources. Primary sources include invoices, bank documents, export-import documents, etc. Secondary sources are those which are written based on some primary source. An original balance sheet is a primary source whereas it’s extract published in newspapers may be considered as a secondary source. A commerce teacher can use the source method for teaching various topics like ‘Banking’, ‘Insurance’, ‘Final Accounts’, etc.

 

XI. HEURISTIC METHOD

Prof. Armstrong advocated Heuristic method, half a century ago, by which the pupil was made to find the answer to his problem by his own unaided efforts. Under this method, the pupils are led to ‘discover’ the facts for themselves with the help of experiments, apparatus or books. Naturally the procedure adopted will be that of activity method and the reasoning employed will be inductive. The learner invents or discovers items of knowledge. The method emphasises the process of the growth of mind by one's own effort rather than pouring cooked material into empty vessels. The learner struggles with items of knowledge just like a researcher.

While applying this method in a commerce class, all learners in a class may be set to work at the same problem simultaneously, and each learner may be made to feel responsible for finding out something for himself. Each learner is free to move, discuss and pose questions. The learner is induced to ask many questions and to answer such questions as far as possible by himself. Learners are guided to observe facts correctly, to systematize the knowledge learnt and to arrive at generalisations - all through their own efforts maintaining the heuristic spirit, that is the spirit of discovery. The teacher may also ask questions to keep the pupils on the track and to make them mentally active and to arouse curiosity leading to reflective thinking. Once the desire is created, the learners will be motivated.

The teacher retreats to the background and, thereby, forces the student to judge and plan for himself. This method is not practicable for constant use: it is uneconomical in time, and it may lead to mistakes arising out of unscientific methods, arguments and strategies adopted. For example, in the absence of immediate feedback, verification and correction, incorrect conclusions may be drawn. Constant adherence to this method is not at all suitable for beginners. It is time consuming also.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MODULE 2

TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING COMMERCE (10HRS)

 

2.1 Techniques of teaching-drill, review, exposition, Narration, Quiz, Buzz, Brainstorming, Role play, simulation, supervised study, Assignment.

2.2. Questioning-purpose, characteristics and art of Questioning

 

2.1 TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING

The literature on ‘Teaching’ generally makes no distinction between methods of teaching and techniques of teaching. Writings on educational theory and practice have presented different classroom procedures as methods of teaching or techniques of teaching. But these two terms have different meanings and values, though both are integrated in any instructional situation. In brief, it is said that method of teaching refers to the arrangement of the ways and procedures through which learning is achieved while technique of teaching refers to the special skill employed by the teacher in the course of teaching.

Major techniques in teaching

The major techniques that could be effectively applied in the teaching of Commerce are discussed: 1. Drill 2. Review, 3. Narration 4. Illustration 5. Exposition 6. Role playing, 7. Dramatization 8. Brainstorming, 9. Buzz session, 10. Simulation, 11. Quiz session, 12. Supervised study, 13. Assignment

 

1. DRILL

Drill is purposeful repetition of some activity done for the strengthening of some item already learnt, with a view to make some skill permanent. This technique has a wide scope in teaching of Accountancy. Accountancy as a subject of study involves preparation of a variety of sophisticated tables, charts, statements of accounts, etc. in addition to solution of a variety of problems. These warrants mastery of a number of skills which could be attained only by individual practice and drilling. The only thing is that it should be done with understanding and with a clear idea of the objectives to be realised.

Principles of effective drill

i. The students should understand thoroughly the subject matter before starting the practice.

ii. Drill exercises should be short and distributed over an optimum period of time.

iii. Much of the drill work should be individualised

IV.  Drill should be given in various forms to avoid the monotony.

V.  Reinforced repetition should be the strategy adopted for drilling.

Vi. Correct response should be insisted upon from the beginning.

vii. Both speed and accuracy should be aimed at.

 

2. REVIEW

It is the mental process of going through some material after its initial learning. While drill is the repetition of some learning material or activity already acquired, in its original form; review is an intelligent re-examination of something learnt with a view to clarity ideas, re-organise the material and register it appropriately in the cognitive structure. Review involves recall, renewal as well as establishment of new relations.

For example, the teacher can give many problems from Final accounts with different types of adjustments. Here each problem helps the learner to get new insights.

Suggestions for the success of review

i. Review is not just a repetition. It must involve new learning and better understanding

ii. Review should result in a new organisation of the knowledge already attained.

iii. Review should focus on the weak points of assimilation in order to ensure filling up gaps and them to help retention.

iv. Intelligent exercises or assignments given at the end of each unit or topic may be used for the purpose of review.

v. Review may be in the form of verification, checking or gathering of information on the

material learnt.

 

3. NARRATION

Narration means the presentation of subject matter to the pupils through the medium of speech maintaining a clear, vivid, interesting and ordered sequence. This helps children to learn quickly, by making the subject matter in resting and easy to grasp. On many occasions’ teachers find it convenient to simply narrate the subject matter. In Commerce, the teacher can narrate topics from Business studies, Accountancy, etc. when a number of facts and other details are to be presented.

 

4. ILLUSTRATION

The presentation of subject matter with the help of pictures or examples, analogies, models, diagrams, multimedia, etc. is known as illustration. Use of illustration will help to avoid the monotony of narration and also to create vivid mental images leading to better understanding.

i. Types of illustrations: The illustrations may be categorised into verbal illustrations and non-verbal or concrete illustrations. Verbal illustrations are those which influence cognition through “the medium of related ideas expressed in words. Stories, vivid descriptions, comparisons, similies, analogies, anecdotes, etc. are examples. Non-verbal or concrete illustrations are those which provide sense perceptions, especially visual perceptions. In this category we may particularly include samples of the objects themselves, models, pictures, diagrams, sketches, maps, demonstrations, photographs, films, etc.

ii. Advantages of illustrations

I.  It makes abstract ideas concrete

II. It gives vivid experiences and mental images to the learner

III. It makes experiences meaningful

IV. It creates interest and curiosity among the students

v. It helps in the formation of good intellectual habits

vi. It helps to clarify the explanations and thus to make assimilation possible.

 

5. EXPOSITION.

Exposition is a time-honoured technique particularly employed at the presentation stage of a lesson. It is a technique of giving new information initially and then clarifying it in detail. It is something more than explanation. The purpose of exposition is to “promote thinking among the pupils and thus to enable them to grasp the meaning of the subject matter presented in an intelligible manner.

 

6. Role Playing

Role playing is a teaching technique in which students assume an identity other than their own and play the role of others with whom the new identity has t been assumed. The role played may be that of a teacher, a parent, a sales man, a manager, a banker and even inanimate things familiar in the course of interaction with the society. While playing such roles, participants of the role play exhibit behavioural patterns they believe are characteristics of those roles in specific social situations. For example, two students might enact an interview, one taking the role of manager and the other of an interviewee. Through role playing the students get a vicarious experience.

At higher secondary level role playing can be very effectively used by the commerce teacher. In teaching topics like Banking, Foreign trade, etc. the teacher can arrange role plays within the class room itself. He can guide the students for the success of the programme.

Types of Role playing: There are two types of role playing. They are structured role playing and spontaneous role playing. In structured role playing the teacher selects the situations to be enacted in advance and specifies the goals of the activity. Proper planning is required for this. In some cases, written materials which describes the role and situations is also presented in advance. Spontaneous role playing arises in the midst of a discussion.

 

7. DRAMATISATION

Dramatization is one of the natural and systematic enaction of life situations that could be dramatized with a view to give realistic and meaningful understanding. In dramatization, the life situations are depicted in the form of a drama or play and the ideas to be presented are revealed through the action, talks and behavioural patterns of the characters. This is an effective instructional strategy that could be employed in an ordinary class.

In a commerce class, the teacher can organise dramatic presentation of realistic situations associated with topics in business studies, accountancy, etc. based on scripts written by himself or by the students. Some of the topic suitable for dramatization is given below:

i. Formation of partnership firms

ii. Banking operations

iii. Selection procedures

The dramatisation is different from role playing on the ground that, the former is, based on a story and the latter is based on a situation. The role playing does not require a story.

 

8. BRAINSTORMING

Brainstorming is basically an activity designed to promote creativity. It is a form of discussion which enables the group to do collective creative thinking. The emphasis brainstorming is upon eliciting from the students as many different ideas as possible for more careful consideration at a later time.

Under brainstorming, the mind is stimulated to think without any inhibition whatsoever. The ideas are just accepted as they are. They are never rejected the process of brain-storming however inappropriate or even irrelevant they might appear to be. The time for a person is limited to 3-5 minutes. The suggestions are taken for comment and close scrutiny subsequently. Everyone is allowed to comment upon to adopt and to elaborate the ideas suggested by the others.

Brainstorming in the class situation invariably leads to generation of new ideas and approaches to the study of the topics. This technique is very useful for enhancing the contribution and involvement of students in the teaching-learning process in Commerce. Topics like globalisation, privatisation, etc. can be subjected to thorough discussion by this technique.

 

9. Buzz session

i. Meaning: In a buzz session, students are split into small groups for a specific period of time to discuss given issue or topic. Reports of the results of the various buzz groups are then presented to the entire class and a thorough discussion is stimulated. This technique can be employed during the course of a lecture or some other similar programme. If this is properly done the students become very motivated and raise arguments regarding a particular issue.

ii. How to organize a buzz session?

A buzz session can be organized in the following manner:

i. Divide the class into sub-groups of 6 or 7 in each.

ii. The sub groups are then given a minute to select a group leader and a rapporteur. The rapporteur is the person who is responsible to report the activities and summary of discussion to others.

iii. The group members are then asked to discuss the topic.

iv. After the discussion all the groups reassemble.

v. The rapporteur of each sub-group then presents before the whole group a short summary of the reactions of the group members.

vi. Then the unsolved problems if any are referred back to the sub-group concerned. This is again followed by discussion in the larger group.

vii. Finally the general group arrives at the final solution of the problem under consideration.

iii. Advantages of buzz session technique

1.It develops critical thinking among the students.

ii. Effective way to find out solution to a problematic situation in a classroom.

iii. The discussion always leads to in-depth knowledge in the subject.

iv. Develops positive attitudes such as democratic outlook, tolerance to different viewpoints, group cohesion, etc.

iv. Disadvantages of buzz session technique

i. Lack of proper knowledge in the organisation of this of this technique will lead to mere waste of time.

ii. If proper control is not exerted by the teacher, the programme would have an adverse effect.

iii. It is not applicable at lower level classes.

V. Buzz session and Commerce Education:

In a commerce class, the teacher can effectively use the buzz session technique. While teaching topics, especially in the context of modern developments in the various areas such as banking, insurance, trade, import, export, etc. there is possibility for controversies and clash of views. During such occasion’s teacher can apply this technique to find out solution for this.

 

10. SIMULATION

Simulation technique is relatively a new approach introduced in the field of education. Simulation is the presenting of a problem or an event »resented in artificially created situations similar to the real one. The presentation is made as near as possible to the real situation or event. A mini working model of an aeroplane being used in training pilots to learn and practice the working of an aircraft is an example of simulation. Nowadays various computer programmes are used for giving training through simulation. Micro teaching used in teacher training for skill development can also be considered as a form of simulation. In teaching of Commerce, the teacher can set up an artificial situation of a bank, an industrial concern, a trade centre, a cooperative society, etc. in school and can give training o “Students in the various activities involved in it.

 

11. QUIZ SESSION

Quiz session is commonly used as an evaluation device. It consists of a series of questions to be asked orally. It is comparatively unreliable and time consuming, because it is to be given to each person individually. Students have to form answers on the spur of the moment; the teacher too, has to evaluate the answers then and there. One student may have all difficult questions to answer, whereas, another may accidently get all the easy ones. Again, students who are confident of themselves and are the glib can make a good impression because readiness to recite and ability to talk are factors which are bound to influence grades or marks even if the answers may not be accurate. A quiz session is not the same as questioning which is an integral part of the teaching procedure. In questioning, the attention is centred on developing the lesson or revising it, whereas in oral quizzing, the attention is focused on giving grades or marks. A commerce teacher can use this technique very effectively for grading his students.

 

12. SUPERVISED STUDY METHOD

Supervision means observation; thus, this method refers the supervision of the predetermined takes in the classroom by the teacher. In fact, this method is not complete in itself but it is used along with other methods. Under this method students are assigned the task. Later on, they get busy in their work and the teacher supervise and guides them when required.

Definitions

Clark and Star said- “Pupils working under the supervision of the teacher and offer to the equal opportunity to instruct.”

Maxwell and Kiljar said- “Supervision study is that alone in which pupils carry out activities relating to laboratory work, and in which the only function of the teacher is to guide.”

Characteristics of the Supervised Study Method:

1. Itis based on close relationship between the teacher and student.

2. It helps the backward children because it is systematic process and follows the psychological approach of individual differences.

3. It emphasizes on the direct supervision of teacher on the students.

4. Student concentrate more on their studies under the direct supervision of the teacher.

 

Steps for Supervised Study Method

Prof A. C. Binning and D. H. Binning have laid down the following steps for its use:

1. Conference Plan: The backward children can be educated properly because there is a proper arrangement of education is this method. These backward children are taught after the classroom and the teacher tries to remove the individual difficulties.

2. Special Teacher Plan: It is also related to conference plan. Additional specific teacher other than the teacher who is teaching the students, are appointed to provide the guidance for study to the students.

3. Period Division Plan: In it, students are assigned certain tasks and instructions by one teacher whereas another teacher supervises them.

4. Double Period Plan: The subject matter is assigned to the students into two parts. One part is for the teaching purpose, while another one is for the supervision of the task. Model divided 90 minutes for the study, as under:

(a) Review Instruction—25 Minutes (b) Activities Assigned—25 Minutes (c) Physical Exercise—5 Minutes (d) To study Allotted Task—35

5. Minutes Periodical Plan:

Under this system, the supervised and instructed study is not used continuously but is used periodically i.e. once or twice in a week or in a month.

 

Merits of Supervised Study Method

1. The most prominent of this method is that it helps the students to overcome their individual mistakes.

2. Cordial relationship can be developed between the teacher and the students through this method.

3. No problem of discipline in the classroom because all the time, the teacher remains in the classroom and supervises them seriously.

4. It helps in cultivating the various qualities like good study habits, basic skills and virtues etc. for group learning.

5. It can help teacher the backward children as well in the classroom.

6. Student's interest in the study is kept intact.

7. It is convenient for teacher because he has not to teach everything to the students while themselves try to solve the problem.

 

Demerits of the Supervision Study Method

1. It is very time and energy consuming method.

2. The students do not get the opportunities for self-dependence and intuitiveness through this method.

3. Due to the consuming method, the curriculum cannot be complete in time.

4. It is applicable only in higher classes and for its application the teacher has to do several special preparations.

5. It requires a good laboratory and a good library in the school. In fact, they are not easily available in the schools.

Safeguards for this Method

1. Only some selected lessons should be taught through this method, not the whole curriculum.

2. The teacher should be alert while performing his duty

 

13. ASSIGNMENTS

Assignment is some specific work assigned to the student. It is a sort of undertaking or commitment on the part of the learner. He undertakes the responsibility of carrying out the work assigned. It may vary from writing an essay to organising a project. It can be made challenging and the student can be motivated to refer to sources of information or to involve in group work and thus realise valuable objectives. Assignment may be worked out by the student at home, classroom, or outside. The teacher has to evaluate and monitor.

 

Characteristics of a good assignment

i. Correlation with previous knowledge and experiences

ii. Clarity and definiteness as to what is expected

iii. Removal of pupil's difficulties through previous discussion and guidance

iv. Stimulating and directing the learning activity by frequent monitoring.

v. Recognition of individual differences.

vi. Appropriate to the developmental status of the pupils

 

Types of assignments

i. Essay type: Writing of essay type answers to questions arising out of the subject matter already done in the class.

ii. Memory type: Oral presentation of material already presented in the class.

iii. Practical type: Preparation of charts, models, etc.

iv. Problem type: Solution of problem is at the end of a lesson. At higher secondary level it is applicable to Accountancy, Costing, etc.

v. Group assignments: Allotment of some group work to be executed in a given time, say in the form of a group project.

vi. Activity type: Assignments in the form of activities. For example, visit to a nearby factory, collecting and systematically recording information regarding some commercial organisation, etc.

 

Purposes of an assignment

i. To provide opportunity to independent work among the students

ii. To develop the habit of extra reading among the students

iii. To enable students utilise leisure time most profitably

iv. To motivate the students to acquire more knowledge regarding a specific topic of study

v. To help the learner in revising and reviewing previous lessons

vi. To develop in pupils the ability to engage in specific goal-oriented work

 vii. To promote creativity among the students

 

4, Guidelines for preparing assignments

i. Mere posing of ordinary questions or problems is not an assignment. There should be ample scope for original individual work. The teacher has to suggest the books to refer, places to visit or individuals to interview, etc. along with the assignment.

ii. The assignment should preferably arise out of the activities, needs and interests of the pupils.

iii. It must motivate, help to clarify doubts or misunderstandings and develop insight.

iv. The assignment should be a co-operative activity in which the teacher and the pupils take an active part.

v. The assignment should be specific in scope as well as objectives anticipated.

 

2.2. Questioning-Purpose, Characteristics and Art of Questioning

Art of Questioning (Significance)

                         It is an instructional strategy that focuses on the many and varied ways that questions can be integrated into a learning experience. Undoubtedly the art of questioning is the most important potent weapon in the armoury of the teacher. It is well said,

“I keep six honest serving men,

They taught me all 1 know.

Their names are ‘what and ‘why’ and ‘when’,

And ‘how’ and ‘where’ and ‘who’.”

                         “Good questions”, writes F. Theodore Struck, “by their very nature, are educative, and they have a very prominent place in all kinds of learning.” Questioning plays an indispensable part in ‘learning’, teaching’, and ‘testing’. If used in the right way, at the proper time, questions lead to new realms of understanding; they serve as means of organizing knowledge, or correlating the results of educative experiences; of tying together units of learning; and of integrating personality. One who questions faultlessly teaches effectively, is not without meaning. Salmon holds that a bad questioner is a bad teacher; he may be a good lecturer. In the words of Ryburn, “It is no exaggeration to say that the success of a teacher in any particular lesson, and in teaching in general, depends upon his ability to question well.” According to Raymont, “The acquisition of a good style of questioning may be laid down definitely as one of the essential ambitions of a young teacher.”

 

2.2.2 Purposes of Questions.

I. To test the previous knowledge of the students.

2. To enable them to recall something.

3. To enable them to recognise something.

4. To enable them to think over something.

5. To enable them to reason about something.

6. To elicit something from students.

7. To stimulate interest and effort on the part of students,

8. To keep the children mentally alert.

9. To promote initiative and originality.

10. To stimulate the curiosity of the students.

11. To ascertain whether they are following the lesson or not.

12. To link new knowledge with old.

13. To revise the lesson and thus to fix the facts in the minds of the students.

14. To secure the co-operation of the students.

15. To diagnose the weak points of the students.

16. To formulate general rules.

 

2.2.3. CLASSIFICATION OF QUESTIONS 

A. Formal questions: Formal questions are those where the questioner already knows the information which he asks for. Classroom questions may be put under this category. They are divided into three:

 

A.1 Teaching questions: These are classified under preliminary and recapitulatory questions.

A.1.1. Preliminary questions and introductory questions: These questions are generally asked at the beginning of the lesson. The purposes are:

(i) To test the previous knowledge of the students.

(ii) To link the new knowledge with the already learnt knowledge.

(iii)To motivate the child and arouse his curiosity.

                         These questions enable the teacher to test the readiness of the student’s mind. Questioning at this stage enables the teacher to follow the maxim “From known to unknown”. Questions should be relevant to the topic. Their number should be very small, say three or four.

 

A.1.2. Recapitulatory questions: Such questions are generally put at the end of a lesson or at the end of each section of the lesson. These questions serve two purposes:

(1) To enable the teacher to know if the children have picked up the ideas, he wanted them to learn.

(2) To serve the purpose of revision and to give students a good opportunity for practice.

 

A.2 Developing questions: These questions are said to be the backbone of the lesson. They are used:

(i) to develop a particular line of thought;

(ii) to lead the pupils to discover facts for themselves;

(iii) to formulate new generalizations in an inductive way;

(iv) to focus attention on important points;

(v) to develop knowledge step by step;

(vi) to enable the students to use their powers of observation, of comparison and concentration;

(vii) to break the narrative in order to ensure that the class is following; and (vii) to make the inattentive students attentive ones.

                         A great skill is required on the part of the teacher to ask developing questions. The teacher has to lead the students to think and discover facts for themselves. While narrating a story, the teacher should not ask questions.

 

A.3. Testing Questions of evaluatory Questions

 

B. Natural Questions. In natural questions, the questioner does not know the information about which he asks and makes a query. Teacher’s questions are formal and those of the students natural.

 

2.2.4. Characteristics of Good Questioning

                         Following are the chief characteristics of good questioning’

1. The language of the question should be simple.

2. Questions should be graded. They should neither be too easy nor too difficult. If the problem is too easy, the child will not take interest in it. If it is too difficult, he will get discouraged. Of course, students must be trained to answer very difficult questions. 

3. Questions should not be ambiguous, lengthy and vague. They should be clear, brief and to the point.

4. Questions should be suited to the ability of the children to whom they are put.

5. Questions should be relevant to the topic.

6. Questions once asked should not be repeated unless the teacher is-sure the class has not followed them.

7. The teacher should try to vary the form of his questions.

8. Two questions should not be asked in one

9. Questions spout be interesting as far as possible.

10. Questions should be framed in such a way that these do not encourage guess work. The teacher should not generally admit answers like ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or other single words.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MODULE 3

INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES (15HRS)

 

3.1 Peer tutoring, Team teaching Co-operative learning, Problem based learning

3.2 Brain based learning- principles and characteristics

3.3 Concept mapping- characteristics

3.4 Reflective Journaling: Brief outline

3.5 Differentiated strategies for inclusiveness: Think pair, Flexible Grouping.

 

3.1.1. PEER TUTORING

Peer tutoring is a flexible, peer-mediated strategy that involves students serving as academic tutors and tutees. Typically, a higher performing student is paired with a lower performing student to review critical academic or behavioural concepts.

Importance

▪   It is a widely-researched practice across ages, grade levels, and subject areas

▪   The intervention allows students to receive one-to-one assistance

▪   Students have increased opportunities to respond in smaller groups

▪   It promotes academic and social development for both the tutor and tutee

▪   Student engagement and time on task increases

▪   Peer tutoring increases self-confidence and self-efficacy (Spencer, 2006)

▪   The strategy is supported by a strong research base

 

PEER TUTORING MODELS

Class wide Peer Tutoring (CWPT): Class wide peer tutoring involves dividing the entire class into groups of two to five students with differing ability levels. Students then act as tutors, tutees, or both tutors and tutees.

Cross-age Peer Tutoring: Older students are paired with younger students to teach or review a skill. The positions of tutor and tutee do not change. The older student serves as the tutor and the younger student is the tutee. The older student and younger student can have similar or differing skill levels, with the relationship being one of a cooperative or expert interaction.

Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS): PALS, a version of the CWPT model, involves a teacher pairing students who need additional instruction or help with a peer who can assist. Groups are flexible and change often across a variety of subject areas or skills. Cue cards, small pieces of cardstock upon which are printed a list of tutoring steps, may be provided to help students remember PALS steps. All students have the opportunity to function as a tutor or tutee at differing times. Students are typically paired with other students who are at the same skill level, without a large discrepancy between abilities.

Reciprocal Peer Tutoring (RPT): Two or more students alternate between acting as the tutor and tutee during each session, with equitable time in each role. Often, higher performing students are paired with lower performing students. RPT utilizes a structured format that encourages teaching material, monitoring answers, and evaluating and encouraging peers. Both group and individual rewards may be earned to motivate and maximize learning. Students in RPT may prepare the instructional materials and are responsible for monitoring and evaluating their peers once they have selected a goal and reward as outlined by their teacher.

Same-age Peer Tutoring: Peers who are within one or two years of age are paired to review key concepts. Students may have similar ability levels or a more advanced student can be paired with a less advanced student. Students who have similar abilities should have an equal understanding of the content material and concepts. When pairing students with differing levels, the roles of tutor and tutee may be alternated, allowing the lower performing student to quiz the higher performing student.

 

Steps for implementing peer tutoring programme

1.    Clarify the specific objectives of the tutoring program, including both academic and social objectives when appropriate.

List objectives in a form that can be easily measured. For example: “Students serving as tutees will improve reading fluency by 30% on classroom reading materials in the next 12 weeks.” “Performance of all students on weekly spelling tests will improve to an average of 85%; no student will score lower than 60%.” “Within 8 weeks, students involved in tutoring will report that math is at least their third favorite class.”

2.    Choose tutoring partners carefully. Teachers should find pairs who will work together well; however, they should also encourage pairing students who are different in gender, race, or socioeconomic status whenever possible, and not exclusively support established groupings.

3.    Establish rules and procedures for the tutoring program. These rules should cover how students are to interact with each other, and specify the type of interactions that are not acceptable. Procedures should specify the times and dates of tutoring, the materials to be used, and the specific activities to be undertaken.

4.    Implement the tutoring program

In this step, the tutoring programme is implemented, monitored it carefully, and checked whether it is in consistent with the established the rules and procedures. If needed, modify the rules and procedures. Depending on the subject area and model selected, one to four, 30 to 45-minute sessions can be devoted to teaching and modelling. Students should master each step of the model selected before learning additional skills. A teacher will need to closely monitor student progress to ensure that established procedures are followed, students utilise interpersonal skills, and content is covered.

5. Evaluate the program

Evaluate the program frequently, and do not wait for the end of the program to determine whether it was effective. Collect information throughout the program, and predict whether it will be successful. If progress is not being made, modify the program.

 

Role of a peer tutor

1.Carefully monitor their own and their partner’s progress

2.Practice social skills needed throughout peer tutoring ie., sharing, taking turns, using respectful language, and accepting criticism or feedback.

3.Provide feedback for correct and incorrect peer responses, including praise.

 

Role of teacher in peer tutoring

1.Define and develop procedures for social skills students may need throughout peer tutoring (i.e., sharing, taking turns, using respectful language, and accepting criticism or feedback)

2. Define and develop procedures for moving into peer tutoring groups quickly and quietly.

3. Explain and give model peer tutoring and allow students to practice prior to the first peer tutoring session. Consider using a prepared script for practicing interactions.

4. Train students how to provide feedback for correct and incorrect peer responses, including praise.

5. Teach students how to carefully monitor their own and their partner’s progress.

6. Provide direct, systematic instruction for the peer tutoring process selected.

7.Consider providing cue cards summarising procedures or post procedures until automaticity is established.

8.Model error correction procedures

9.Chart and consider posting of student or group progress.

10.Praise the use of tutoring procedures in addition to correct responses

 

3.1.2 TEAM TEACHING

Team teaching is a form of organisation in which resources as well as interests and expertise of various teachers are pooled in order to make the teaching learning process more dynamic and there by mastery learning made possible. It is a co-operative endeavour where a group of teachers are jointly responsible for planning and instruction of a course. All pupils benefit the expertise of all teachers. The shortcomings of any one teacher is made good.

 

Definition: ‘A type of instructional organisation, involving teaching personnel and the students assigned to them, in which two or more teachers are given responsibility of working together, for all or significant part of the instruction of the same group of students.”

 

Characteristics of team teaching

1. It utilises the services of two or more teachers in the process of teaching the same class.

2. It is an instructional strategy rather than training strategy.

3. In this type of teaching, a group of teachers are responsible for realisation of the educational objectives, rather than an individual teacher.

4. A team of teachers of the same subject or related subjects work together to deal a relevant content area to the same group of students.

5. It can be termed as co-operative teaching, in which teachers together plan to pool resources, interests and expertise for teaching the same content for the same group of students.

6. Every individual teacher of the team gets an appropriate role in the instructional process in accordance with one’s special competencies or areas of specialisation.

7. The group of teachers involved have shared responsibilities in planning, organising, leading, controlling and evaluating.

8. In team teaching. the group of teachers have to jointly consider the needs of their pupils. They should teach jointly with a view to satisfy those needs and solve the difficulties of the learners.

 

Objectives of team teaching

1. To make the best use of expertise of a number of teachers.

2. To improve the quality of teaching by utilising the skills of more than one person.

3. To develop positive attitude towards co-operation or group work in teaching-learning situations.

4. To help the students to satisfy the needs and solve the difficulties relating special content areas.

5. To develop the sense of shared responsibility in teaching and evaluation.

6. To minimise the scope of teaching wrong things to the students by any individual teacher.

 

Types of team teaching

1. Team teaching in the same class period: In it the team members discuss the various aspects of the same topic to be covered in the same class period and share these aspects in tune with the special knowledge area in which each has expertise.

2. Team teaching based on ability: In it, units are shared by different teachers not on the basis of subject matter but on the basis of special competencies such as lecturing. demonstrating. guiding discussions, etc.

3. Team teaching based on specialisation: In it, members with different subject specialisations are responsible for instruction, starting from course formation to evaluation. They share the content according to their specialised areas.

4. Team teaching on relay system: in this, one teacher starts the instructional process. When he completes. another follows and so on. Here the division of work is not based on subject competency or skill. What each teacher does supplements, enriches and supports what others have done.

 

Instructional values of team teaching

a. Team teaching helps in enriching learning experiences.

b. Improves one’s own efficiency in teaching by self-evaluation as well as mutual evaluation. Teachers get motivated to perform better.

c. Higher cognitive abilities can be achieved both by teachers and pupils.

d. Functioning as a team may be helpful to develop qualities such as mutual assistance, tolerance. co-operation. healthy competition, etc., in children as well as teachers.

e. Objectivity, validity and reliability in test construction can be enhanced by joint effort.

f. Analytical. scientific and systematic approach vitalises the instructional process.

 

Principles of team teaching

1. Principle of size and composition of the class: The concept of fixed size class is becoming obsolete. The size of the class should vary according to the objective of team teaching. For example. if the purpose of team teaching is to remove the difficulties of the students in certain topics of a subject. the size of the group involving those students who have similar type of difficulties.

2. Principle of level of instruction: Before organising this type of team teaching the entering behaviour of the group of students should be determined so that presentation of each member of the team is in tune with the level of the class.

3. Principle of assigning duties to teachers of the team: The team teaching involves two type of tasks: lead lecture and group work for follow up. Duties assigned to teachers should be appropriate according to their competencies of teaching. Every teacher cannot lead the lecture with excellence. Therefore, this task must be assigned to a competent person.

4. Principle of learning environment: Every subject requires its own learning environment. Therefore, learning environment must be generated by employing appropriate teaching aids and other inputs.

5. Principle of time factor: Team teaching is a well organised teaching task. Therefore, time schedule should be prepared by allotting appropriate time to sub-topics, lead lecture task and group work. In this type of teaching time management should be carefully done.

6. Principle of supervision: The focus of team teaching is to develop mastery over subject-matter by utilising the expertise of teachers. Supervised study is essential for assimilating various items of knowledge of a topic. The nature and duration of Supervising students’ activities depend upon the purpose for which team teaching is employed.

 

Procedure of organising team teaching

Team teaching involves three steps (1) Planning (2) Organising and (3) Evaluating.

A. Planning of team teaching: This step involves the following activities.

1. Formulating the objectives of the team-teaching session.

2. Writing these objectives in behavioural terms.

3. Identifying the entering behaviour of the learners.

4. Analysing the material to be taught.

5. Preparing a tentative schedule for teaching.

6. Assigning duties to teachers.

7. Fixing up the level of instruction.

8. Selecting appropriate teaching aids and other inputs.

9. Deciding ways and means to be adopted for evaluating the students’ performance.

 

B. Organising team teaching:

The organisation of team teaching is decided by considering the needs of the learners. The following are the general activities which are usually performed by a team of teachers.

1. Determining the level of instruction. Some questions are asked to explore the background of the learners.

2. Selection of appropriate communication strategy by considering the level of language achievement of the learners.

3. Presentation of lead lecture by a competent teacher of the team; other teachers listen the lecture and note down the elements of topic which are not easily understandable to the learners or not appropriately presented.

4. Follow up work. The other teachers have to supplement the lead lecture by explaining the elements of the topic in a simpler way so that the learners can understand easily.

5. Providing motivation or reinforcement during both the stages i.e. during th? lead lecture and follow up work.

6. Supervision of student activities which are assigned in lead lecture or group work or follow up work. This stage is considered to be important for assimilation.

 

Every member of the team should be conscious of the time schedule and about the duty assigned to him. He must be well prepared and ready for implementing the plan.

 

C. Evaluating team teaching:

Evaluation is an important aspect of any type of reaching. It is helpful to measure the performance of learners. It also provides reinforcement to the team of teachers as well as to the learners. This stage involves the following activities.

1. Asking oral questions. Each question should measure a particular objective envisaged by the team.

2. Taking decision about the level of performance and of realisation of the objectives.

3. Diagnosing difficulties of the learners and providing remediation.

4. Revising the planning and organising phase of team teaching itself on the basis of evaluation of the students.

 

Advantages of Team Teaching

1. Better Planning: Team teaching has to avoid unnecessary repetition and hence every teacher has to devote more time towards the planning and preparation of his task.

2. Better utilisation of resources: It results in the optimum use of available resources, human, material and finance. A number of teachers can work together and make the best use of their specialised knowledge.

3. Effective use of teaching techniques: Team teaching leads to the integration of curricular experiences. Teaching becomes more meaningful and effective. Teachers observe each other and thus improve their teaching techniques.

4. Better motivation: It creates better motivation for good teachers to become team leaders. Students too are better motivated while they are being taught by a number of teachers. Teachers with greater technical skills influence the performance of their colleagues.

5. Better follow-up work: It ensures better follow-up work as a number of specialists teach the same subject to the same group.

 

Limitations of team teaching

1. It is very difficult to ensure co-operation among teachers of a team, which only can enable them to work jointly. Most teachers can never agree about the solution for an educational issue.

2. Most of them are reluctant to work together because nobody wants to expose oneself.

3. It is not easy to assign specific roles and responsibilities to a group of teachers,

4. Many teachers do not maintain mutual regard and respect. Every teacher considers himself an expert of the subject and has his own style of teaching

4. Teachers generally do not like to deviate from the routine method of teaching.

 

3.1.3. CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING

Co-operative learning is a learning strategy in which the pupils are structured into groups of peers who work together towards a common goal. It places students of different abilities in the same team and rewards or reinforcers are given to the group but not to individuals to encourage learning. Normally this ‘small group work’ is followed by a summarising activity involving the entire class. Some forms of cooperative learning involve specific guidelines for assignment of children to groups. These guidelines usually involve forming group that include members who vary in ability, gender and cultural background. Some forms of co-operative learning depend on each group being given responsibility for a different part of a complex major task. Under such an arrangement, the work of a small group cannot be fully appreciated until the whole programme is completed.

In co-operative learning students are tested individually on their mastery of the subject matter, but rewards are based on group accomplishment. Co-operative learning can aid in making learning more effective for each member and can promote the problem-solving skills.

 

Advantages

1. Students develop higher proficiency in critical reasoning strategies and abilities.

2. Students experience higher levels of intrinsic motivation to learn.

3. Facilitate behaviour based on stronger group interaction.

4. Students internalise many of the positive attitudes necessary for working effectively with others.

5. Develops positive attitude towards teachers, principals, and other school personnel as well as towards peers.

 

Disadvantages

1. If co-operative learning is not properly planned and designed, it can allow for “free rider” effect, in which some group members do all or most of the works while others go along for ride.

2. Possibility of diffusion of responsibility.

 

Teacher's role in Co-operative learning

1. Specifying the objectives for the learning task.

2. Assigning adequate learning activities to the students.

3. Observing, analysing and giving proper direction to the students.

4. Clarifying the doubts raised by the students

5. Evaluating students’ performance.

 

3.1.4. PROBLEM BASED LEARNING (PBL)

Problem Based Learning is an innovative learning strategy, by which the learning materials are presented through problematic situations and the learners are motivated and helped to solve these and thus acquire and internalise related knowledge. The PBL encourages dealing with meaningful problematic situations, that promote curiosity and the spirit of inquiry among learners. This learning strategies stresses the point that meaningful problem situations can serve as a catalyst for promoting the spirit of investigation which in turn will result in inquiry training. While thinking from the point of view of the teacher, PBL can be achieved by adopting the technique of Problem Based Instruction (PBI). The PBL or PBI can also be referred by other names such as Project Based Teaching (PBT), Authentic Learning (AL) and Anchored Instruction (Al).

The teacher’s role in PBL is to pose problems to ask reflective questions and to facilitate investigation. The PBL originated from the roots of Inquiry Teaching and Guided Discovery learning. The purpose of PBL is to help the students master the subject matter through problem solving.

 

a. Characteristics of Problem Based Learning

i. The problem does not test skills but they assist in the development of the skills themselves.

ii, PBL is not exclusively meant for the solution of the specific problem being solved but it helps to gain additional information through problem solving.

iii. The students are responsible to solve the problem and the teacher acts as the facilitator, motivator and guide.

iv. The teacher may present different approaches to solve the problem being investigated, but each student is permitted to adopt the strategy that best fits in with his competencies and ways of thinking.

v. Authentic and performance-based assessment at the end of instruction is compulsory in PBL.

 

b. Stages of Problem Based Learning

 

Stage 1. Encountering and defining the problem: As far as a commerce student is concerned confronting problems of various natures is very significant. In order to train inquiry resulting in problem solving, the teacher should encourage each student to define and explore the problem by way of references, expert’s opinion, discussions, searching on the Internet, etc. At this stage the learner may be prompted to ask themselves basic questions such as;

What do I already know about this problem?

What should I know to effectively address this problem?

From which sources can I gather the additional data and information for reaching the solution?

At this stage a very focused problem statement is needed. For example, in Commerce class, the ‘Loss of market share of a particular product’ can be considered as a problem. Teacher can guide the students to study the situation and hypothesise reasons leading to the problem. Also, they may be encouraged to suggest feasible Solutions.

 

Stage 2. Accessing, evaluating and utilising information: After defining the problem exactly, and exploring the conditions and reasons leading to the problem, they start hypothesising solutions. But this might require vast data more than those already available. For this the teacher has to help them to get access to maximum information through print media, electronic media, discussion with experts, etc. Now a day Internet can be used as a very effective tool for gathering maximum information regarding the problem. But the students must carefully appraise the worth of the sources as well as the data gathered from these sources especially those collected through the Internet.

In the above example, the students can gather information regarding the following aspects. - Nature of the product - Customer satisfaction on the product - Market competition - Advertisement - Marketing strategies, etc.

By analysing these aspects, the student will be able to solve these problems and arrive at a final conclusion.

 

Stage 3. Synthesis and Performance:

In this stage, students construct a solution to the problem. The analysis of various aspects related to the data will help them to arrive at a solution to the problem. This can be precisely stated by synthesising all the findings that emerged from the exploration using the available data as well as the data gathered. This solution can be presented in the printed form or electronic presentation. In the case of the example discussed above, the students can prepare a report in the traditional printed form or present it using modern multimedia techniques. The teacher can act as a facilitator at these stages.

 

 

3.2. BRAIN-BASED LEARNING

Brain-Based learning is an instructional approach based on how the brain learns naturally. It is an instructional technique that is grounded in the neuroscience of learning. i.e., scientific findings are used to generate educational strategies, designs and instructional programmes. This kind of learning provides a biologically driven structure for teaching and learning that leads to modify one’s learning behaviours. It is a meta-concept that includes an eclectic mix of techniques. Currently, these techniques stress allowing teachers to connect learning to students’ real-life experiences. This unique structure of learning approach involves the educational concepts and functions of:

Experiential learning

Learning styles

Multiple intelligences

Cooperative learning

Mastery learning

Problem-based learning

Simulated teaching

 

Principles of brain-Based Learning

1. The brain is a parallel processor. It can perform several activities at once.

2. The brain perceives whole and parts simultaneously.

3. Information is stored in multiple areas of the brain and is retrieved through multiple memory and neural pathways.

4. Learning engages the whole body. All learning is mind-body: movement, foods, attention cycles, and chemicals modulate learning.

5. Humans’ search for meaning is innate. The search for meaning comes through patterning.

6. Emotions are critical to patterning, and drive our attention, meaning and memory.

7. Learning involves focused attention and peripheral perception.

8. We have two types of memory: spatial and rote.

9. We understand best when facts are embedded in natural spatial memory.

10. The brain is social. It develops better in concert with other brains.

11. Complex learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by stress.

12. Every brain in uniquely organized.

 

3.3 CONCEPT MAP

Concept maps were developed in 1972. These are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge.  A concept map is a diagram or graphical tool that visually represents relationships between concepts and ideas. Most concept maps depict ideas as boxes or circles (also called nodes), which are structured hierarchically and connected with lines or arrows (also called arcs). These lines are labelled with linking words and phrases to help explain the connections between concepts.

 

Characteristics

1. Linking words/phrases: Linking words or phrases are located on the lines connecting objects in a concept map, and these words describe the relationship between two concepts. They are as concise as possible and typically contain a verb. Examples include "causes," "includes" and "requires."

2. Propositional structure

Propositions are meaningful statements made up of two or more concepts connected with linking words. These statements are also known as semantic units or units of meaning. Concepts and propositions are the foundation for the creation of new knowledge in a domain. Essentially, a concept map visually conveys a set of propositions about a certain topic.

3. Hierarchical structure

A key element of the concept map is its hierarchical structure. The most general and inclusive concepts are positioned at the top of a concept map with the more specific and exclusive concepts arranged hierarchically below. As such, a concept map is designed to read from top to bottom.

4. Focus question

A focus question defines the issue or problem the concept map needs to solve. Developing a focus question allows you to design with a context in mind and thus helps guide and maintain the direction of your concept map. Within the hierarchical structure, the focus question should be at the very top of the concept map and serve as a reference point.

5. Parking lot

Before beginning your concept map, it can be helpful to come up with a list identifying the key concepts that need to be included. Establish a rank ordered list from the most general concept to the most specific. This list is referred to as a parking lot, as you will move the items into the map as you figure out where they fit in.

5. Cross-links

Cross-links are relationships between concepts in different domains of the concept map, allowing you to visualize how ideas within these different domains are connected. Both the cross-links and the hierarchical structure facilitate creative thinking, and these cross-links often indicate moments of creativity.

 

Types of concept maps

There are four major categories of concept maps. These are distinguished by their different format for representing information. Examples of the various types of concept maps are presented on the following pages.

 

a). Spider concept map: - The “spider" concept map is organized by placing the central theme or unifying factor in the centre of the map. Outwardly radiating sub-themes surround the centre of the map.

b). Hierarchy concept map: - The hierarchy concept map presents information in a descending order of importance. The most important information is placed on the top. Distinguishing factors determine the placement of the information.

c). Flowchart concept map: - The flowchart concept map organizes information in a linear format

d). Systems concept map: The systems concept map organizes information in a format which is similar to a flowchart with the addition of 'INPUTS' and 'OUTPUTS'.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mind maps

•         Are used to flesh out a set of ideas, which are often generated internally.

•         Tend to represent a greater variety of tasks and concepts, so their application is more flexible.

•         Contain a single word, phrase, or image in the center of the map, with related ideas radiating outward in all directions.

•         Show topics with a single parent and several children.

 

3.4 REFLECTIVE JOURNALING

            Journaling is used as a means of aiding reflection, deepening students understanding and stimulating critical thinking. The value of journaling is to improve student learning outcomes. Reflective journal writing is one such technique that has been promoted by educators as a means of encouraging reflective learning. The strength of reflective journaling is that it highlights students’ thoughts and perceptions about course content. It is a heuristic teaching tool that fosters critical thinking skills and develops reflective practices among students. This increases student interest and encourages further investigation. Reflective journaling is not simply a recounting of the day’s events but a learning exercise in which students express in writing their understanding of, reflections on, response to or analysis of an event, experience or concept. This form of writing encompasses all aspects of the students’ thoughts and emotions around specific aspects of their experiences in class and increases attention and concentration levels during class time. Reflective journaling is a useful tool in facilitating the critical reflection underpinning transformative learning.

 

3.5. DIFFERENTIATED STRATEGIES FOR INCLUSIVENESS

Today’s classrooms represent students of different abilities as well as disabilities. Such diversities have made many educators aware that not all students will be successful with the same educational activities. Students have different strengths, needs, interests, and educational backgrounds. Differentiated instruction has been identifies as an effective teaching method that can address this issue for a variety of students. The educational method is based on the premise that all learners are different, that learning requires a connection of a student’s own abilities and interests, and that lesson planning requires providing students with the type of instruction that can address their needs and the educational objectives simultaneously.

Differentiated instruction can be defined as, “the planning of curriculum and instruction using strategies that address student strengths, interests ski;ls, and readiness in flexible learning environments”. Inclusive education means “the act of ensuring that all children despite their differences, receive the opportunity of being part of the same classroom as other children of their age, and in the process get the opportunity of being exposed to the curriculum to their optimal potential”.

The challenge of most inclusive environments is in meeting the needs of all learners according to their strengths, ability levels, and needs without separating students homogeneously. Differentiated instruction is one method that allows teachers address this situation while maintaining the intent of inclusion. Teachers are able to create lesson plans based on educational objectives for the entire class, while modifying the delivery, product, or assessment for classroom learners. By providing instruction in this form, classroom learners recognise that they are all learning the same material; however, it is presented in the way that meet their unique needs.

 

3.5.1. Think-Pair-Share Strategy Overview                                    

Think pair share strategy is a cooperative learning technique that promotes student participation and is useful for all year levels and class sizes and is particularly useful in making lectures interactive. In this strategy, students pair up to share on a problem or question initiated by the instructor. This strategy is good for generating class discussion and sharing of options and ideas. This strategy can be used in lectures or tutorials, even online, to enhance student learning by facilitating student’s thinking about an issue then interacting with one peer to explain their ideas and listening to their peer’s ideas.

Think-Pair-Share is a cooperative learning strategy that can promote and support higher level thinking. The teacher asks students to think about a specific topic, pair with another student to discuss their own thinking, and then share their ideas with the group.

The intention is to:

1.        Get students to think independently about some problem; then

2.      Verbalise what they have already learned about that problem to another person.

3.       By explaining what they know, students clarify their own thinking as they have to articulate their thoughts to someone else and in doing so, they may find out what they do not know.

When first using this technique, teachers may want to ask for volunteers to share their discussions and wait until the class is more comfortable with the procedure before calling students to present before the group. The strategy is mainly designed to foster short class discussions. Pairs, share what they have discussed with the entire class. Other students can then respond to what is said or they can share what they discussed with their own partners.

            A modification on the think pair share method is the think-pair-square-shared. In this technique, a step is added to the think-pair-sharemethod before students share with the class. Before presenting to the whole class, “student pairs turn to another pair and discuss what they have shared within their first pairs and then pairs share with the class.

 

Procedure:

❖   The facilitator/teacher poses a question, problem, issue or idea (that does not simply have one answer). This can provide up on the board or a power point slide so that everyone is clear as to the problem to be discussed. She/he introduces the think-pair-share activity as the method for discussing answers to the question.

❖   Think: Students then silently think, write notes, draw, and/or calculate to answer or solve the issue.

❖   Pair: students turn to a neighbour or move around the room and selects their pair.

❖   Share: One student explains their ideas while the other student listens attentively without speaking. When the facilitator gives the time sinal, the students swap roles.

 

Steps

1. Decide on how to organize students into pairs.

2. Pose a discussion topic or pose a question.

3. Give students at least 10 seconds to think on their own. (“think time”).

4. Ask students to pair with a partner and share their thinking.

5. Call on a few students to share their ideas with the rest of the class.

6. Pre-assign partners. Rather than waiting until the discussion time, indicate in advance who students’ partners will be. Otherwise, the focus may become one of finding a partner rather than of thinking about the topic at hand.

7. Change partners. Students should be given an opportunity to think with a variety of partners.

8. Give “think time”.

9. Monitor the discussions. It is important to listen to some of the discussions so that common misconceptions can be addressed and unique ideas shared with the whole group.

 

Benefits/ Advantages of Think-Pair-Share

-When students have appropriate “think time”, the quality of their responses improves.

-Students are actively engaged in the thinking.

-Thinking becomes more focussed when it is discussed with a partner.

-More of the critical thinking is retained after a lesson if students have an opportunity to discuss and reflect on the topic.

-Many students find it safer or easier to enter into a discussion with another classmate, rather than with a large group.

-No specific materials are needed for the strategy, so it can easily be incorporated into lessons.

-Building on the ideas of others is an important skill for students to learn.

-Promotes student participation and engage the whole class.

-Provides equity for all students rather than the ame or loud students answering

-Enhances listening and speaking skills.

-Takes only a short time to prepare and start and do

Tips for Think-Pair-Share

1.    For odd number of students: teacher can pair up with a student or have a group of three take turns talking.

2.   Allow enough time for ALL students to share ideas and talk about the topic.

3.    Use a call and respond method to get attention back from group.

4.    Call on different students to share with the class each time

5.    Encourage the shy students to share to build on confidence.

 

3.5.2 FLEXIBLE GROUPING

Flexible grouping is at the heart of differentiated instruction. It provides opportunities for students to be part of many different groups based on their readiness, interest, or learning style. These groups may be homogenous or heterogenous. They may be student-selected or teacher-selected. Group assignments may be purposeful or random. Groups may work together for a day or a month. Flexible grouping also provides opportunities for independent work.

It allows students to have the opportunity to work with, and learn from, their peers in a way that lets them feel comfortable contributing. When students work in a variety of groups, they learn to work independently and cooperatively with a variety of personalities. Some benefits include increased student achievement and motivation, student ownership of learning, and growth in problem solving and communication skills.

 

Features:

➢ Grouping may be whole group, small group, triads, partners, individual and depend on instructional activities, learning goals, and student needs.

➢ Flexible grouping arrangements are short term and challengeable.

➢ Flexible grouping provides opportunities for stuents to be part of many different groups based on their readiness, interest or learning styles.

➢ Groups may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.

➢ They may be student-selected or teacher-selected.

➢ Group assignments may be purposeful or random

➢ Groups may work together for a day or a month.

➢ Flexible grouping also provides opportunities for independent work.

➢ Group size and composition are adjusted to accommodate and reflect student progress and instructional objectives.

Benefits:

-Fluid strategy that responds to student needs

-Provides opportunities for students to interact with a variety of peers -Develops collaborative skills

-Creates a sense of classroom community Eliminates tracking

-Develops independent work skills Develops flexibility

 

Role of the teacher

•           Explain procedures

•           Provides instructional scaffold

•           Facilitates discussion

•           Provides explicit instruction

•           Affirms student diversity

•           Guides individual development

•           Encourages individual student interests

•           Describes student’s roles

•           Encourages student interaction

•           Monitors group effectiveness

Examples: Literature Circles -Science labs or projects- Role playing - Levelled math groups -Tiered assignments

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MODULE 4

TRAINING IN TEACHING SKILLS (10 HRS)

 

4.1 Micro teaching- characteristics and Phases

4.2 Skills and its components - Stimulus Variation, Questioning, Introduction, using Black Board/White Board

4.3 Link Practice-Integration of skills

 

4.1. What is Micro-teaching?

Micro-teaching technique was first adopted at Stanford University, USA in 1961 by Dwight W. Allen and his co-workers and is now followed in many countries with modified and improved techniques. It is a training procedure for teacher preparation aimed at simplifying the complexities of the regular teaching process. Micro teaching is a scaled down sample of teaching in which a teacher teaches a small unit to a small group of 5 to 10 pupils for a small period of 5 to 10 minutes. Such a situation offers a helpful setting for a teacher to acquire new teaching skills and to refine old ones. Micro-teaching is a new design for teacher training, which provides trainees with feedback about their performance immediately after completion of lessons.

 

2. Definition of Micro-teaching

Micro-teaching is defined as “a scaled down teaching encounter in a class size and class time” (Allen). It is also defined as “a teacher training procedure which reduces the teaching situation to simpler and more controlled encounter achieved by limiting the practice teaching to a specific skill and reducing teaching time and class size.”

Micro-teaching is essentially a training technique. It is called ‘Micro’ due to many reasons. First of all the teacher tea «es or give practice to a small gy group (5-10 students) for a short duration (5-10 minutes). Moreover, it involves only a very small piece of content and concentrates at a time on a single sub skill of the major skill, which is magnified. Thus, micro-teaching attempts to reduce the complex teaching into - manageable proportions.

 

3. Objectives of Micro-teaching

1. To enable teacher-trainees to learn and assimilate new teaching skills under controlled conditions.

2. To enable teacher-trainees to gain confidence in teaching, and to master a number of skills by dealing with a small group of pupils.

 

4. Characteristics of Micro-teaching

1. It is a scaled down teaching.

2. It is less complex than regular teaching.

3. It involves lesser number of students, usually 5 to 10.

4. Its duration is short - about 5 to 10 minutes

 

 

5. Steps in Micro-teaching

1. Defining the skills to be developed in terms of specific teaching behaviour

2. Demonstration of the skill by the teacher educator by taking a micro lesson

3. Based on the model, preparation of a lesson plan by the teacher trainee, for a suitable topic, which calls for application of the skill anticipated.

4. Teaching of the lesson by the teacher trainee in a simulated set up, in the

presence of observers.

5. Providing of immediate feed-back to the teacher trainee by the observers with a

view to help him improve the skill.

6. Arranging re-planning, re-teaching and re-feedback sessions

7. Repetition of ‘plan, teach, feedback, re-plan, re-teach and re-feedback’ cycle till

the skill is acquired.

The exact teach-reteach cycle of micro-teaching can be presented diagrammatically as given below.

                    

 

6. Micro-teaching procedure

Micro-teaching procedure involves three phases. They are:

1. Knowledge acquisition phase: Observing the demonstration of the skill and analysing it and discussing about the demonstration.

2. Skill acquisition phase: Preparing the micro lesson involving the skill and practising the skill while teaching.

3. Transfer phase: Evaluating performance through feedback, replan, re-teach and transfer of skill to actual class teaching in macro sessions.

This process is summarised in the following table

 

7. INTEGRATION OF SKILLS

Having armed the teacher trainees with a battery sub skill of teaching, the next Stage is the integration of those sub skills into the major skill. A deliberate programme for integration of sub skill is called Link Practice or Link Lessons. There are many methods for Link Practice. One of the methods is that after practising three sub skills separately, the trainee may combine all the three sub skills in a lesson of 10 minutes. He then practises another three sub skills separately and links them. He then combines all the six sub skills in a single lesson of 15 minutes. And so on till all the sub skills are Combined in a macro lesson of 40 minutes and teaching a full class.

 

8. Advantages of Micro-teaching

Micro-teaching is flexible and adaptable to different needs and purposes. It has many advantages as listed below:

1. Teacher-trainees trained through micro-teaching are found to perform better than the ones trained by the traditional method.

2. It employs real teaching for the purpose of developing skills

3. It helps accomplish specific teacher competencies.

4. The teaching practice gains a higher degree of organisation because factors such as time, number of students, etc. could be controlled.

5. It helps gain deeper knowledge due to feedback and re-plan, re-teach cycles.

6. It is more effective in modifying teacher behaviour

7. It helps in developing important teaching skills such as questioning, reinforcement of student participation, etc.

8. it is an effective technique for transfer of teaching competencies to the classroom. 9. it provides many opportunities to trainees to build up desired patterns of behaviour in a non-threatening set-up

 

9. Limitations of Micro-teaching

1. It is skill oriented; content is not emphasised.

2. It emphasises specific skills: but neglects integrated skills.

3. It covers only a few specific skills.

4. It may raise administrative problems while arranging micro lessons.

 

After mastering each specific skill through micro-teaching sessions, the teacher educator can arrange a number of ‘macro’ sessions in the line of actual classroom situations. This will help in integrating the specific skills into complex major skills.

 

4.2. TEACHING SKILLS ESSENTIAL FOR COMMERCE TEACHER

A set of strictly overt, verbal, and nonverbal behaviour, that are observable    measurable, and modifiable, which give evidence to the efficiency of a teacher in the teaching task can be said to be a teaching skill.

 

Relation between teacher competency and skill

A teacher competency is defined in terms of what the teacher knows, believes or can do, in the capacity of a teacher. Teaching skills are the reflections of the competency of the teacher with respect to the task of teaching. A competent teacher can perform the skills systematically and effectively.

 

 

Major Teaching Skills And Its Components

I. Skill of introducing a lesson, Il. Skill of stimulus variation. III. Skill of explaining

IV. Skill of illustrating with examples, V. Skill of using black board VI. Skill of posing probing questions, VII. Skill of fluency in questioning, VIII. Skill of reinforcement

 

1. SKILL OF INTRODUCING A LESSON

When a teacher introduces a lesson, he gives a brief introduction about the lesson in order to pre-dispose the pupil’s minds to it. This has to serve two main functions, namely refreshing and ensuring the pre-requisites and motivating the pupils to learn the new lesson. It can also act as the foundation for building up the new knowledge.

 

Components of the Skill

1. Use of previous knowledge / pre-requisites

To satisfy the maxim of teaching from known to unknown, the teacher has to judiciously decide upon the pre-requisites that will be essential for properly presenting the new learning material. Then through questions or other tasks he has to ascertain whether these are available with the students. If gaps are identified these have to be filled by using appropriate strategies. This will act as an anchor for the presentation of new materials.

 

2. Use of appropriate devices

Many devices such as exposing, describing, narrating, illustrating, storytelling, role playing, presenting analogies, dramatisation, using audio-visual materials, experimentation /demonstrations, etc. are used for motivating the pupils and to gradually lead them to the new learning material.

3. Motivation

4. Continuity

 

2. SKILL OF STIMULUS VARIATION

It involves deliberate change in the stimuli presented by the teacher for the purpose of drawing, stimulating and maintaining the attention of the learners throughout the class. The variation in the stimuli helps in avoiding monotony and generating interest among students which in turn makes learning effective.

 

Components of the Skill

1. Teacher movements

Meaningful, purposeful movements with a pedagogical function.

2. Teacher gestures: Gestures are the movements of the parts of the body, used for expressing emotions, size, shape, direction, etc. and also for directing attention.

3. Change in speech pattern Change in volume, tone or speed of verbal communication for attracting attention.

4. Change in interaction style: Teacher - Class interaction, Teacher - Pupil interaction, Pupil - Pupil interaction (Peer group interaction)

5. Focussing: Drawing attention to specific aspects to be stressed, by verbal or gestural focussing.

6. Pausing: Deliberate use of silence during talk.

7. Oral-Visual switching (Change in sensory focus):  Change of sensory channel from verbal to visual and vice versa. Oral —> Visual, Visual —» Oral, Oral ~> Oral —> Visual.

By doing so pupil's attention and interest can be sustained.

 

3. SKILL OF EXPLAINING

Explaining is the skill by which teacher can clearly bring out the exact meaning of a concept or an idea and also can arrive at relationships among various concepts, events and ideas. Generally, a teacher explains when he describes ‘how’, ‘why' and ‘what' of a concept, phenomenon or event. Explanation is a set of interrelated statements elaborating a learning material being taught.

Components of the skill

1. Use of Beginning Statements: For drawing and maintaining attention and making the students mentally ready for learning and giving them some clues of explanation.

2. Use of Explaining links:

Words or phrases which increase in statements effectiveness of explanation. They bring continuity in statements. Eg: As a result of, Therefore, in order to, Because, On the other hand, Due to, that is why, Inspite of, Hence, But, This is how.

3. Use of mediators

Presentation of various mediators to make the explanation lucid and meaning to the pupils. These may be in the form of example, diagrams, anecdots, etc.

4. Use of concluding statements

Statement made at the end of explanation to summarise and conclude it. The purpose of it is to present a consolidated picture of what has been explained.

5. Questions to test Pupils’ Understanding

In the course of the explanation, frequently ask some questions which will help the teacher get immediate feedback from the students.

 

4. SKILL OF ILLUSTRATING WITH EXAMPLES

This is the skill for timely use of examples for the purpose of making an idea, concept or principle lucid. A good illustrative example will also engage the pupil’s attention.

Components of the skill

1. Formulating simple examples: Examples that are familiar to the pupils and hence helpful for easy assimilation

2. Formulating relevant examples: Examples relevant to the item being taught

3. Formulating interesting examples: Examples that can arouse curiosity and interest

4. Use of appropriate media for examples: Verbal and non-verbal media for examples

5. Use of Inductive-deductive approach for examples: Rules are formulated from specific examples and then Pupil cites examples for the rule.

 

5. SKILL OF USING BLACK BOARD

Black board is the most widely y used of all visual aids. It is one of the quickest and easiest means of illustrating an important point. Matter once written on the black board can be erased easily and new materials added as the lesson progresses.

Components of the skill

1. Legibility of handwriting

Maximum ease in reading what is written on the black board even for students sitting on the back bench should be ensured. The sub components are the following

a. Distinct difference between letters

b. Adequate spacing between letters

c. Adequate spacing between words

d. Slant of the letter nearly vertical

e. All small letters of the same size

f. All capital letters of the same size

g. Size of the letters large enough to be read

h. Thickness of the line uniform

2. Neatness in black board Work

a. Adequate spacing between lines

b. Lines parallel to the base of the board

c. No overwriting

d. Focussing the relevant matter

3. Organisation of black board work

a. Systematic planning of space

b. Spacing to exhibit the sequence of the items being presented

c. Adjustment of space for presenting related items in totality

4. Appropriateness of black board work

a. Continuity in points

b. Points brief (Brevity)

c. Appropriate presentation of illustrations and diagrams

d. Proper use of colour chalk

e. Underlining only the important points to be stressed

 

6. SKILL OF POSING PROBING QUESTIONS

This is the skill required in applying the technique of effectively dealing with student responses for going deep into their knowledge. Questions calling for such original and deep level responses are qualified as ‘probing’.

Components of the skill

1. Prompting

When there is no response or incorrect response teacher gives hints or clues for leading the pupil to the desired correct response.

2. Seeking further information

If the initial response of the pupil is partially correct or incomplete, teacher helps the pupil to clarify or elaborate or explain the response by asking subsidiary questions

3. Refocussing

When pupils give correct response, the teacher relates their responses with something already taught.

4. Increasing critical awareness.

Teacher asks ‘why’ and ‘How of a correct response for increasing critical awareness in pupils.

5. Redirection

Asking the same question to another pupil for increasing pupil participation.

 

7. SKILL OF FLUENCY IN QUESTIONING

Successful teaching is highly dependent on questioning. During a lesson the teacher will have to ask different types of questions, depending on the situation and purpose to be achieved. Questioning promotes involvement, initiates thinking, creates motivation and enhances learning.

Fluency in posing questions after question and properly distributing them among students in the classroom are integral components of the skill of questioning. The rate of meaningful questions put per unit time by the teacher is called fluency questioning.

Components of the skill

1. Simplicity

2. Conciseness

3. Relevancy

4. Specificity

5. Grammatical correctness

6. Clarity and audibility

 

8. SKILL OF REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement is a major condition for effective learning. Hence every teacher has to master the skill for adopting appropriate strategies for reinforcing the learners. This Skill has to be exhibited by teachers in the manner in which they react to the responses and actions of pupils. Reinforcement results in response modification and is based on the principle of feedback followed by immediate rewarding of desirable or correct responses and actions. Encouraging reactions of the teacher would strengthen and discouraging reactions would weaken pupil responses involved in the learning process. Hence the teacher should manage his reactions to pupil responses with skill.

Components of the Skill

1. Positive verbal reinforcement

Students can be reinforced through verbal expressions like Good, Right, Fine, Well done, Excellent, carry on, Go ahead, etc. Using extra verbal cues like ‘um’, ‘aha’, etc. also will encourage pupils to progress.

i. Use of positive verbal reinforcers:

It involves the use of verbal or linguistic expressions which reinforce learning. Just saying ‘Good’, ‘Yes’, “Well done’ after the student has answered can reinforce him.

ii. Use of positive non-verbal reinforcers:

It involves the use of teacher's gestures in orde to reinforce the student’s behaviour. Nodding, smiling, moving towards the students, giving him an encouraging look or pat, etc. are examples of positive non-verbal reinforcement.

iii. Use of negative verbal reinforcers:

The use of certain mildly painful reinforcers might help a student to acquire the desired behaviour instead of the wrong one. Expressions like ‘wrong’, ‘no’, ‘incorrect’, etc. are examples of negative verbal reinforcers.

iv. Use of negative nonverbal reinforcers:

The teacher uses this type of reinforcers in order to make the students aware of certain undesirable behaviours. Frowning, nodding the head disapprovingly, moving away from the students, etc. are examples of negative non-verbal reinforcers.

 

4.3. LINK PRACTICE- INTEGRATION OF SKILLS

The link practice may be defined as a process of selection, organisation and utilisation of different teaching skills to form an effective pattern for realising the specified instructional objectives in a given teaching learning situation.

Link practice involves the integration of skills. The main objectives of integration of teaching skills are to help in the transition from microteaching situation to real teaching situation regarding the synthesis of teaching skills in view of the teaching situation and instructional objectives.

Features of Link Practices

Link Practice sessions are normally arranged with about 20 pupils for about half the normal class period, that is, 20 minutes.

The trainee prepares a series of eight short lessons on a single unit and teaches each lesson for 20 minutes using the appropriate skills particular to the content.

The number of lessons used in link practice is also flexible but should cover adequately the topic that the trainee has chosen.

The skills of set induction and closure which are not practiced in microteaching sessions are effectively used in the proper place in the link session.

In the link practice lessons, trainees gain sufficient practice and control over the use of components of the skills appropriately with the content.

At the end of each lesson, the trainee should have a review with tutor, not only of that lesson but also of the general strategy of the set of lessons.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MODULE 5

PEDAGOGICAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Pedagogy-Pedagogical Knowledge-Pedagogical Competence- meaning and significance

5.2 Pedagogical Skills-Content related skills, Classroom Management

5.3 Promoting Culturally inclusive Classroom Environment

5.4 Motivational Techniques in teaching

 

5.1. PEDAGOGY

The term ‘pedagogue’ is derived from two Greek word pais-paidos meaning boy and agogos meaning guide, which together connotes a teacher. Thus, pedagogy implies the science of teaching.

Pedagogy can be defined as the art of teaching. Pedagogy involves being able to convey knowledge and skills in ways that students can understand, remember and apply.

 

5.1.1 Pedagogical knowledge

➢                 Pedagogic knowledge is the deep knowledge about the processes and practices or methods of teaching and learning and how it encompasses (among other things) overall educational purposes, values and aims.

➢ This is a generic form of knowledge that is involved in all issues of student learning, classroom management, lesson plan development and implementation, and student evaluation.

➢ It includes knowledge about techniques or methods to be used in the classroom; the nature of the target audience; and strategies for evaluating student understanding.

➢                 A teacher with deep pedagogical knowledge understands how students construct knowledge and acquire skills, develop habits of mind and positive dispositions towards learning.

 

5.1.2 Pedagogical competence –meaning and significance

Pedagogical competence includes awareness of alternative instructional methods/technologies. It requires that instructors actively think about and interrogate their own practices in the classroom, being aware of the possible strategies for engagement, and actively choosing the methods that best fit their goals and topics.

Meaning

It is the competence to:

1.  Teach

2.Identify areas that require change.

3.    Plan, initiate, lead and develop and teaching.

4.    Provide research-based teaching

      5. Interact on issues related to teaching and learning in higher education

A competent teacher needs both content mastery and pedagogical competency.

Significance

1.        Use in the teaching of practical skills.

2.        Stimulate educational situations to students.

3.        Promotes achievement of students.

4.        Builds up confidence of the teachers in teaching.

5.        Brings quality of learning and teaching in the classroom.

 

5.2. PEDAGOGICAL SKILLS

Pedagogical skills are skills of teaching content effectively. These skills vary with the subject matter and level of instruction, as those skills needed to teach in kindergarteners to read are significantly different from those needed to teach secondary students to build sets for theatre production. Good pedagogical skills involve not only imparting information, but also provides opportunities to apply that information in:

➢ Enquiry and problem solving

➢ Group work/ co-operative learning

➢ Building on prior knowledge

➢ Knowing your subject

➢ Knowing your students

➢ Being transparent.

 

Significance of pedagogical skills

▪    A skilled teacher can tailor to the needs of the learners

▪    In any classroom no two students will have exactly the same knowledge or skills about the subject matter. A skilled teacher wll be able to anticipate and respond to individual student’s learning needs and challenges.

▪    The skilled teacher will be able to present tasks that are appropriate to the student’s level of cognitive development.

▪    It helps to create a good learning environment

▪    Appropriate methods help to reduce behavioural problems in the classroom.

 

Pedagogical skills can generally be classified into: Content related skills and Classroom management skills

 

1. Content related skills

Content related skill refers to the body of information that teachers and that students are expected to learn in a given content area. It includes;

▪ Analytical skill to research a topic, develop a project plan

▪ Scientific skills to break down a complex scientific system to smaller parts

▪ Mathematical skills for calculations and measurement

▪ Technical skills to trouble shoot the sources of a problem

Content related skills, also known as technical, job specific or vocational skills, include those that relate specifically to your line of work.

 

2. Classroom management Skills: It is a term used by the teachers to describe the process of ensuring that classroom lessons run smooth by despite disruptive behaviour by students. The term also implies the prevention of disruptive behaviour.

Teacher is often considered to be the manager of the teaching learning process. Management of instruction is to create a class room environment conducive to learning in particular and the all-round development of pupils in general. Good classroom mangers are often good instructors too. Managing a class room is an integral part of the instructional process. Effective classroom management warrants a number of traits, competencies and skills on the part of the teacher.

Classroom management refers to the shaping of learning environment in the classroom. It would necessitate pooling of a number of provisions and organising a number of procedures necessary to establish and maintain an environment in the classroom. In which effective instruction and learning can occur. Promoting student learning is the primary goal of class management and the prevention f misbehaviour, although both are relevant.

 

Principles of classroom management

•  Principle of clarity and mastery of the content

The teacher should have command over the subject which is dealing with. The students are greatly influenced by a well-read knowledgeable teacher. Thorough knowledge can help the teacher properly conceptualise the content to be covered in his lesson and present it well.

•           Principle of involvement

Active involvement of students in instructional task is a condition of effective learning. The skills of questioning can make teaching-learning a two-way process and thus motivate pupils to actively involve in what is going on in the class. Such active participation in learning not only helps mastery learning but also creates minimum problems for the teacher.

•           Principle of democratic behaviour

Teacher has to provide equal opportunity to every student for participation in learning. The individuality of each learner has to be recognised and the self-respect of the student has to be taken care of.

•           Principle of teacher behaviour

During teaching the teacher should exhibit various positive attributes like confidence resourcefulness, sense of justice, sincerity, determination and will power in his behaviour.

•           Principle of self control

Teacher has to be firm in dealing with situations and pupils, but at the same time he should exhibit healthy self control in his behaviour and dealings.

•           Principle of personal attributes

The teacher should possess personal attributes such as sympathy, empathy, dignity of work, harmony, respect for others, etc. sure to create a control and motivating classroom climate so that a cordial atmosphere conducive to learning can be maintained. Effective strategies of instruction, rules, timely intervention, constant feedback, appropriate behaviour and a pleasant class room climate are some of the factors influencing classroom management.

The skill of classroom management consists of the following components:

1.        Addressing pupils by their names

2.        Formulating and following norms of classroom behaviour

3.        Giving clear directions

4.        Providing sufficient work for students

5.        Keeping pupils with in the eye span of the teacher

6.        Smooth variations in stimuli and responses

7.        Recognising and reinforcing acceptable behaviour

8.        Checking inappropriate behaviour of pupils then and there.

 

5.3. Promoting Culturally Inclusive Classroom Environment

A culturally inclusive classroom is one where students and staff alike recognise, appreciate and capitalise on diversity so as to enrich the overall learning experience. Fostering a culturally inclusive learning environment encourages all individuals – regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, religious affiliation, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation or political beliefs – to develop personal contacts and effective intercultural skills. The following pages describe some useful strategies for establishing a classroom environment characterised by cultural inclusivity, mutual respect, and genuine appreciation of diversity.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tips and Good Practice

▪    Engage in Positive Interactions with Students

. Establish an introduction system or “meet-and-greet” process that enables studentsand staff to gain information about the cultural backgrounds of others, and the diversity of experience in the classroom (e.g., ice-breaker activities in the first week ofsemester). For example, consider a “name activity’ that encourages students to talkabout the origins of their name, how they came to be given it, or what it means. This can help to encourage interaction between students, as well as opening up discussion about diversity.

•    It is important to celebrate similarities, as well as discovering differences between students. Refer to the GIHE document “Managing Intercultural Conflict Productively “for suggestions about activities that promote discovery of common interests and shared experiences between students to help build cohesiveness in the group.

•     Promote computer and information technologies as an easily accessible method of student-lecturer interaction, particularly electronic bulletin boards, course mailing lists, and other online mediums.

•     At the start of each semester, provide students with some information about your teaching style and instructional methods, perhaps on lecture slides or on your own website. Include details of your cultural background and any cross-cultural teaching, learning or research experiences you have had.

•    Communicate to your students that you are committed to understanding cultural differences and understanding your own assumptions, values and beliefs associated with diversity. This sends a message to students that culture is valued and respected in the classroom.

•     Provide opportunities for your students to interact with you informally.

Before and after lecturers or tutorials is an ideal time.

•   Make an effort to learn something unique about each student. While this is challenging in large tutorials, exercises such as the “name activity” mentioned earlier can help in this regard.

•   Display positive nonverbal behaviours (e.g., inviting facial expressions, eye contact, posture, hand gestures, physical distance) to ensure you appear approachable to students.

 

Use Appropriate Modes of Address

•      During one-on-one interactions, ask what name or form of address students prefer.

•   During class discussions, refer to students by name as much as possible.

•     Correct pronunciation of names is very important, as it demonstrates cultural awareness and respect. Remember – if you are in doubt, check with students.

•    Use inclusive language that avoids ethnocentric tones (e.g., “family name” rather than “last name”, and “given” name rather than “Christian name”)

 

Eliminate Classroom Incivilities

•      Establish explicit ground-rules for appropriate classroom conduct to protect against cultural exclusion and insensitivity. Communicate, verbally and non-verbally, high expectations for displaying mutual respect toward all students. Encourage students to negotiate an accepted “code of conduct” and set of disciplinary measures for inappropriate classroom behaviour (refer also to the

•    Respond promptly to any behaviour (verbal or non-verbal) that could be considered prejudiced, biased or discriminatory in nature. Do not tolerate racist, sexists or culturally insensitive comments made by students. Explain Australia’s laws in relation to discrimination and the University’s Student Charter.

•   Avoid ignoring or neglecting the needs of individual students. For example, ensure you do not have a tendency to favour one group over another when answering questions.

•       Avoid stereotypes and preconceived assumptions in your teaching practices and course content.

•   When presenting information on cultural and linguistic diverse individuals or minority groups, clearly cite published literature and research findings, rather than expressing

your personal opinion. Similarly, encourage students to draw on diverse data sources/evidence to develop their arguments and critique opinions.

 

Encourage Open and Inclusive Classroom Discussion

•   Prompt students to ask questions by using open-ended statements, such as “Would anyone like to share a different opinion or perspective?”

•     Avoid singling out individual students or putting anyone “on the spot”, particularly when discussing culturally or personally sensitive issues. For example, a student will feel pressured if it is assumed, they can speak on behalf of all people from their country or culture of origin.

•    Promote turn-taking when discussing controversial issues. For example, ensure students take turns expressing their own opinions while also listening to (and genuinely considering) the views of others.

•    Ask students how they prefer to learn, and, where possible, examine how you might adapt your teaching and learning activities accordingly. For example, inviting students to write a “self-reflective essay” to explain their learning style; completing a learning style inventory assessment, or providing an online forum to openly discuss how they like to learn are ideal methods to explore learning styles.

 

Self-Development Checklist

To create a culturally inclusive classroom environment, it is helpful if teaching staff reflect on their own attitudes, assumptions and instructional practices. To what extent do these attitudes, assumptions and practices promote an inclusive learning environment? The following questions can be used as a framework for monitoring your own assumptions, biases, and understandings of cultural diversity in a reflective and potentially productive way.

10 Questions to Guide Self-Reflection: Creating a Culturally Inclusive Classroom

1.    What is my definition of “diversity”?

2.   What national, cultural, linguistic or religious group(s) do I belong to? How do my teaching practices reflect this?

3.    What do I know about the cultural, linguistic, religious and educational backgrounds of my students and other staff?

4.     How could I learn more about the diversity of my students and staff colleagues?

5.    What are my perceptions/assumptions of students and staff colleagues from diverse cultural groups? Or with language or dialects different from mine? Or with special needs or requirements?

6.    What are the sources of these perceptions (e.g., friends/relatives, media, stereotypes, past experiences)?

7.       How do I respond to my students (emotionally, cognitively, and behaviourally), based on these perceptions?

8.    What experiences do I have as a result of living, studying or working in culturally and linguistically diverse cultures? How can I capitalise on this experience?

9.   How can I adapt my teaching practices to be more responsive to the unique needs of diverse student groups?

10.    What other knowledge, skills and resources would help me to teach from a more culturally inclusive perspective?

 

5.4. MOTIVATIONAL TECHNIQUES IN TEACHING

Motivation occupies a central place in learning and hence it is indispensable to effective learning. All teachers are faced with the problem of motivating their students to learn. Therefore, it is essential to think of the ways and means for arousing motivation among pupils. Certain techniques for creating motivation are briefly discussed below.

 

1. Setting of a well-defined goal: Students must be acquainted well with the aims and objectives of studying each lesson. They must be made to appreciate the purpose of acquiring the new knowledge or skill concerned so that they would willingly aspire to learn the task in order to attain the goal. This goal orientation can be given by a properly designed introduction, to be followed by appropriate activities.

 

2. Arousing curiosity: The strong desire to know is a natural tendency of humans. By presenting the new situation in such a way as to arouse curiosity will motivate pupils to acquire that knowledge that satisfies the curiosity. Many problematic situations can be thus presented.

3. Maintaining a pleasant atmosphere: The teacher should create a pleasant atmosphere for learning. This can be done by creating an encouraging class climate as well as by providing external conditions.

4. Linking new learning with past experiences

5. Present the new lesson as a challenge

6. Adopting effective methods of teaching

7. Using appropriate audio-visual aids

8. Providing immediate knowledge of result through feedback of achievements

9. Promoting competition and co-operation

10. Praise and blame

11. Reward and punishment

12. Ensure active participation in the learning activity

13. Promoting ego-involvement: The teacher should try to motivate learners by appealing to their ego satisfaction. He should engage them in activities that can appeal to their self-respect and raise their status among his class-mates.

 

            Above all, the teacher must be interested in what he/she is teaching and in the children whom he is teaching.