EDU 301: Language Across the curriculum

 

EDU 301: Language Across the curriculum

Module 1

1.1. Language – Principles and Functions

Language is a system of communication used by humans, which is based on a set of symbols, sounds, and grammar rules. It is the primary means by which we communicate with each other and share information, thoughts, and emotions. Language enables us to express our thoughts, ideas, and emotions and to understand the thoughts, ideas, and emotions of others. It is an essential aspect of human society, culture, and development. Language can take many forms, including spoken, written, signed, or gestured, and it allows us to communicate with others in various contexts, including social, personal, and professional situations.

Language can be defined as a complex system of communication that uses symbols, sounds, and grammar rules to convey meaning.

1.1.1. Importance of Language

            Language is of crucial importance for several reasons:

1. Communication: Language is the primary means of communication between humans. It enables us to convey our thoughts, ideas, and emotions to others, and to understand the thoughts, ideas, and emotions of others.

2. Learning: Language is essential for learning and education. It is the medium through which we acquire knowledge and skills, and it is necessary for literacy, numeracy, and other forms of academic learning.

3. Socialization: Language is a critical aspect of socialization. It enables us to form relationships with others, to share experiences and ideas, and to develop a sense of belonging and identity.

4. Cultural development: Language plays a vital role in the development of culture and society. It enables us to transmit cultural values, traditions, and beliefs across generations, and it is essential for the preservation and development of cultural diversity.

5. Professional success: Language is essential for professional success in many fields. It is necessary for effective communication in the workplace, and it can be a valuable asset in fields such as diplomacy, business, and international relations.

In summary, language is essential for communication, learning, socialization, cultural development, and professional success. It is a fundamental aspect of human society and culture, and its importance cannot be overstated.

1.1.2. Principles of Language

1. Language is a system of symbols

Language is a system of symbols and it works through symbols, the symbols being words. Language functions effectively when the symbols used are known to the speaker and listener, the writer and the reader. The symbolic language is varied and complex. Language symbols represent things that are not things themselves. The word "Table' is not a table, it stands for a table. There is no logical connection between the symbol and the referent. Symbols get their meaning by convention. There is nothing in their nature which gives them a specific meaning. Languages use words essentially as symbols and not as signs for the concepts represented by them.

2. Language is arbitrary

Language is a learned arbitrary system of vocal symbols by means of which human beings interact and communicate in terms of their common cultural experiences. There is no connection between sound and the object it represents, so if people decide tomorrow to change and modify the sounds, it would be the new acceptable form of language. Language is changeable with time. So, the teacher should teach that form of language which is in use.

3. Language is primarily vocal

Language is a system with vocal sounds. It is based on man's ability and skill to speak. First, most of the time, a man primarily uses its oral form then goes to written form. Written Language comes at secondary level in communicating something. Language connects people with each other.

4. Language is for Communication

Language is a medium by which a person communicates his thoughts, ideas, feelings, expressions, and emotions. Verbally, we can interpret other's feelings, emotions and ideas also. Language gives words to emotions. Not only oral and written form is available of Language but signs, symbols, gestures, animation (of cries laugh, smile, etc.) are also the part of non-verbal language. The non-verbal and verbal languages are useful for communication and depend upon each other.

5. Language is a skill

Language is a skill that is learned by constant practice. Language can be learned not by knowing about it; but by using it. Just as other skills like swimming, driving, singing or dancing that are learned by practice, a language is also learned by constant use. It is acquired first by imitation and then by practice.

6. Language is unique

Every language has its own unique structure, sounds, and words. No language can be learned resorting the use of other languages. So, learning of the mother tongue may create a problem. Mother tongue may be used to facilitate the learning of foreign language but total dependence will hinder mastery over the target language

7. Language grows out of a culture

Every language has its validity only in its culture. The words and sounds of a particular culture have its value, only in its own atmosphere. If the individuals need some change in the language they can reshape and remodel the language

8. Language grows and changes

Language is not static. It is dynamic and living as it is dependent upon cultural change. With new words, sounds and pronunciation a language is enriched and conceives a new form.

1.1.3. Functions of language

Language plays a very important role in human lives. It is a social phenomenon. One of the main goals of language is to communicate with people and to understand them. When someone speaks, he intends a specific purpose. He wants to convey a message through that language. A person uses his language to many different purposes, for example, to express his feelings, to ask for help and to apologize.

1. Expressive and Communicative Functions

The most basic function of language is the expressive function, an attempt to express a sudden change of state, fear, delight, pain or confusion. Whatever it is, such an expression is not a deliberate, conscious expression, but a spontaneous, immediate response not directed towards any other object.

2. Informational Function

The informational function which everyone tends to assume is most important. In fact, this function concentrates on the message. It is used to give new information. It depends on truth and value.

3. Directive Function

The directive function of language means we use language to influence the behavior or attitudes of others. The most straightforward instances of the directive function are commands and requests. Examples of this kind are, I want a cup of tea or close the door. It is clear to hear that, we use the language in a direct way. We ask someone to do something. Sometimes we can use a sentence to express two functions. For example, I am thirsty. The previous example could be used to show the condition of the speaker or writer or to express the feeling. In a way that a person asks someone to give him water.

4. Interpretative Functions

Language serves as a function of becoming aware of interpreting a particular situation. Thus, the cry of one animal in the face of danger is interpreted by other members of the species. The interpretative function is very obvious at the human level. The interpretative function serves to restore a state of cognitive equilibrium. While the stimulus itself creates a condition of uncertainty or novelty, the interpretation serves to clarify the situation and restore the equilibrium.

5. Control Function

When one talks of the function of control, there emerges a social dimension apart from the individual dimension. Gradually, as associations get established between certain states of existence and a stimulus on the one hand and certain sounds, there results from reproducibility of a reaction. Thus, the child cries when he is hungry or suffering from pain. This cry, in turn, makes the mother rush and help. Here is the beginning of control. This control function may not be deliberate and conscious, but as one grows and the environment becomes more organized, the control function of language becomes more and more central.

6. The Functions of Remembering and Thinking

Imagine our thinking and remembering without the use of words. It is almost impossible to recall or remember or think without the use of words and therefore, language. It si language, which helps us to encode experiences, store them and retrieve and decode. It is language, which helps us to translate experiences into thought and engage in processes of different types.

7. Social Functions of Language

In addition to these individual functions, language performs a very important social function. While promoting a sense of personal identity language also serves to develop a sense of social identity, a sense of belongingness to a particular group, marking out different degrees of social proximity and distance.

8. Creative Function

Language plays a very crucial role in imaginative and creative activity. Is it possible to think of writing a novel or poetry without language? Language then not only helps us to control and regulate our cognitions but also enables us to break free and engage in creative imagination.

9. Aesthetic Function

The aesthetic function of language refers to the use of language for artistic or creative expression. This includes the use of language in literature, poetry, music, and other forms of art. The aesthetic function of language allows individuals to appreciate the beauty and power of language beyond its everyday uses for communication and practical purposes. It allows language to be used as a form of artistic expression and to evoke emotions, thoughts, and ideas in the listener or reader.

10. Phatic Function

The phatic function of language refers to the use of language for establishing and maintaining social relationships and for social interaction. Examples of phatic language use include everyday greetings such as "hello" or "how are you?", small talk about the weather, and social conventions such as saying "please" and "thank you". These language uses do not necessarily convey information or convey it only secondarily; rather, they serve to establish a connection between people and to signal that they are part of the same social group or culture.

1.2 Language and Cognition

            Language and cognition are closely intertwined, with language playing a crucial role in cognitive development and functioning. Language allows individuals to organize their thoughts and ideas, to communicate them to others, and to understand and interpret the thoughts and ideas of others.

Ø  Language plays a crucial role in cognitive development, as children learn a language, they also develop their cognitive abilities.

Ø  Language provides a framework for organizing and processing information in a structured way.

Ø  Language affects how individuals perceive and categorize the world around them, including concepts such as color, time, and causality.

Ø  The words used to describe an event can affect how individuals perceive and remember the event later on. This is known as the language-dependent memory effect.

Ø  Language allows individuals to communicate their thoughts and ideas to others, and to understand and interpret the thoughts and ideas of others.

Ø  Different languages may have different structures and grammar rules that influence how individuals think and process information.

Ø  Bilingualism and multilingualism can have positive effects on cognitive functioning, including enhanced executive functioning and improved memory.

Language and cognition are closely intertwined and influence each other in complex ways. It is generally accepted that mother tongue is the natural language of thought for the child and eminently suited for concept formation. Mother tongue is the only tool for logical thoughts and expressions while any language may be the language of added comprehension. The language with which one lives and grows is best suited to achieving originality in thoughts.

Language is more than communication skills and language are linked to the cognitive process. It is a tool for conceptualizing and for linking information. The language supports mental activities and precision in cognition. It helps to bridge between cognitively demanding tasks and their solutions and also to structure consolidations or discourse. Availability of language symbols makes human thinking more sophisticated than the thinking of other animals.

1.2.1. Role of Language in Cognitive development and learning needs of children

The role of language in cognitive development and learning needs of children is significant. Here are some key points:

1. Language plays a crucial role in cognitive development: Language and cognition are intertwined, and language acquisition is an important part of cognitive development in children. Language allows children to organize their thoughts and ideas, and it helps them develop cognitive abilities such as attention, memory, and problem-solving skills.

2. Language helps children learn: Language is essential for learning, as it allows children to communicate with others, understand instructions, and acquire knowledge. Language is also critical for literacy development, which is a fundamental part of learning.

3. Language development varies by age and stage: Children's language development varies by age and stage, with infants and toddlers developing basic language skills, such as vocabulary and grammar, and older children developing more advanced language skills, such as narrative and abstract thinking.

4. Language development is influenced by environment: Children's language development is influenced by their environment, including their family, community, and cultural context. Children who grow up in language-rich environments are more likely to develop strong language skills.

5. Language plays a role in social-emotional development: Language is not only essential for cognitive development but also for social-emotional development. Language allows children to express their feelings and needs, understand the feelings of others, and build relationships.

6. Children with language delays require support: Children with language delays or disorders require support to develop their language skills. Early intervention and therapy can help these children catch up with their peers and improve their cognitive and learning outcomes.

Famous psychologist Vygotsky identified that there are three different stages in the children's use of language. Firstly, language is an essential factor for communication (social speech). Next, children begin to use egocentric or private speech to control their own thinking. The last stage is language development. Children use verbal thoughts to guide what they are thinking and their actions. Language and thought first become independent after them being interdependent. Attainment of a new word was the beginning of the development of a concept.

During early childhood, children's abilities to understand, to process, and to produce language also flourish in an amazing way. Young children experience a language explosion between the ages of 3 and 6. At age 3, their spoken vocabularies consist of roughly 900 words. By age 6, spoken vocabularies expand dramatically to anywhere between 8,000 and 14,000 words. During infancy and toddlerhood, young children are almost always able to understand far many more words than they can speak. However, with this language explosion, their expressive (spoken language) abilities start to catch up with their receptive (ability to comprehend language) skills.

As children move beyond using two-word sentences, they start to learn and understand grammar rules. Beyond growing their vocabularies, young children start to expand their ability to use different forms of words and form more complex sentences. School-age children start to speak more like adults; they can recognize basic grammar errors, put thoughts into question form, and begin including negative expressions such as "not coming" into their sentences. As they get older, children's use of language also becomes more mature and complicated as a result of their cognitive development. The following are the different modes of human activities involving language:

·         Listening: comprehending oral input/intake

·         Speaking: constructing meaningful utterances

·         Reading: understanding written texts

·         Writing: producing written texts/discourse

·         Viewing: attending to visual signs/information

·         Shaping: using visual means of expression

·         Watching: attending to the movements

·         Moving: using the whole body / person

In summary, language is crucial for cognitive development and learning needs of children. Language allows children to organize their thoughts, communicate with others, acquire knowledge, and develop social-emotional skills. Children's language development varies by age and stage, and it is influenced by their environment. Children with language delays or disorders require support to develop their language skills and reach their full potential.

MODULE 2

LANGUAGE DIVERSITY IN THE CLASSROOM

2.1. Multilingualism: Meaning, Nature and Scope

            Multilingualism refers to the ability of an individual or a society to use and understand multiple languages. An individual who uses more than two languages with equal proficiency is called multilingual (Polyglot). Multilingualism can manifest in various ways, including bilingualism (the ability to use two languages), trilingualism (the ability to use three languages), and even more complex language abilities.

There are many benefits to multilingualism, both for individuals and for society as a whole.

For individuals, being able to speak multiple languages can improve cognitive abilities, such as problem-solving and memory retention. It can also enhance job opportunities, particularly in today's globalized economy, and improve cultural understanding and communication with people from different backgrounds. And also

·         Exhibit superior linguistic knowledge.

·         Develop a greater vocabulary.

·         Parcel up and categorize meanings in different ways.

·          Develop not only better verbal but also spatial abilities.

·         Learn further languages more quickly and efficiently.

·         Be better problem solvers by gaining multiple perspectives on issues at hand.

·         Have improved critical thinking abilities.

·         See their own culture from a new perspective not available to monoglots, enabling the comparison, contrast, and understanding of cultural concepts.

For society, multilingualism can foster greater tolerance and understanding between different cultures, and it can help to preserve endangered languages and cultural heritage. In addition, it can provide economic benefits by facilitating trade and business relationships with other countries.

Nature and Scope of Multilingualism

1. Multilingualism is the ability of an individual or a community to use and understand multiple languages.

2. The nature of multilingualism can vary depending on the context. For example, some individuals may grow up in a household where multiple languages are spoken, while others may learn additional languages through formal education or immersion programs.

3. The way in which languages are used can also vary, with some individuals being fully proficient in multiple languages and others being more proficient in one language over the others.

4. Multilingualism can enhance cognitive abilities, such as problem-solving and memory retention.

5. Multilingualism can also improve job opportunities, particularly in today's globalized economy, and improve cultural understanding and communication with people from different backgrounds.

6. Multilingualism can foster greater tolerance and understanding between different cultures, and it can help to preserve endangered languages and cultural heritage.

7. The scope of multilingualism can vary depending on the context, with some communities or societies being predominantly monolingual and others being highly multilingual.

8. The scope of multilingualism can also refer to the domains in which languages are used, such as education, government, or business.

9. Understanding the nature of multilingualism is important for promoting linguistic diversity and developing policies and programs that support multilingual individuals and communities.

2.1.2. Deficit Theory (Rebecca. G. Eller-1989)

The deficit theory by Eller claims that children from disadvantaged populations are intellectually disadvantaged as a result of inferior linguistic development. Working-class children have an inadequate command of grammar and vocabulary to express complex ideas. Deficit theory explains why students fail in using a second language. They have the poor linguistic ability, weak vocabulary foundation, limited range of grammatical constructions, and inadequate communicative ability with persons from a different language background, lack of coherence in their presentations. As a result, students experience psychological problems and feel incompetent in class.

Deficit theory also suggests that teachers avoid labelling children as verbally inept when their language doesn't conform to the teacher's linguistic model. A teacher in a multilingual set-up can:

·         Develop learner's level of confidence through rewards and reinforcement.

·         Build their self-esteem. Give them simpler tasks.

·         Provide a collaborative learning environment.

·          Help them to develop their vocabulary.

Eller's deficit theory has been criticized by some educators and researchers for placing blame on students and their families for their perceived cultural deficiencies, rather than addressing broader societal factors that contribute to educational inequality. However, others argue that the theory is useful in helping educators to understand the challenges that students from marginalized backgrounds face, and to develop more effective strategies for supporting their academic success.

2.3 Discontinuity Theory

Noam Chomsky's discontinuity theory, also known as the nativist theory of language acquisition, argues that the ability to learn language is innate and biologically determined. According to this theory, children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), a cognitive mechanism that allows them to learn and understand language rapidly and without explicit instruction.

Discontinuity theory explains that students experience a discontinuity in learning or functioning due to several factors that adversely affect their self-esteem (failure, deficits, etc.). It assumes that some kind of experienced discontinuities directly challenges personal esteem, of children. In a multilingual set-up, this problem can create a low academic achievement, psychological distress, and maladjustment in the classroom.

Differences in the functional use of language among culturally and linguistically diverse children have been found to account for the discontinuity they experience in the school. The discourse structure and communication styles used by children from culturally and linguistically diverse populations is in harmonious with that of the teacher's style of interaction.

The difference in home language and school language (formal) creates maladjustment in children. This discontinuity between home and school language socialization patterns can have a negative impact on academic achievement.

A teacher in a multilingual classroom can have a great role in minimizing discontinuity. She/he can use the following ways.

·         Familiarize oneself with cultural diversity in classrooms.

·         Create a culturally inclusive learning environment.

·         Timely intervention to check the classroom behavior of all students.

·         Narrow the disconnection between home and school by understanding learner's background.

·         Include community support resources.

2.4 Sociocultural Variants with special focus to Dialect and Register

Sociocultural variants are linguistic features or patterns that are associated with particular social or cultural groups, and reflect the influence of social and cultural factors on language use. These variants can include differences in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and discourse style, and can be influenced by factors such as social class, ethnicity, gender, age, region, and education. Some examples of sociocultural variants in language include:

1. Pronunciation differences: Some sociocultural groups may have distinct pronunciation patterns that are associated with their regional or ethnic identity. For example, speakers of African American English may use a different pronunciation of certain vowels and consonants than speakers of Standard American English.

2. Vocabulary differences: Sociocultural groups may also use different words or phrases to describe the same concepts or experiences. For example, speakers of British English may use different vocabulary for certain foods, clothing, or transportation than speakers of American English.

3. Grammatical differences: Different sociocultural groups may also use different grammar patterns or structures. For example, speakers of Spanish may use different verb tenses or pronoun forms than speakers of English.

4. Discourse style differences: Sociocultural groups may have different patterns of discourse, such as the use of storytelling or humor, or the use of indirect or direct communication styles. For example, some cultures may value indirect communication and avoid direct confrontation or criticism.

Overall, sociocultural variants reflect the complex interplay between language and culture, and highlight the importance of understanding the social and cultural context of language use.

Dialect and register are two important concepts in linguistics that refer to different aspects of language variation and usage.

Dialect refers to the variation of language that occurs within a language community or across different language communities. Dialects can vary in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and other linguistic features, and can be influenced by factors such as geography, social class, ethnicity, and historical events. Dialects are classified as social dialects and regional dialects. The language of medical doctors, legal officers, laboratory physicists, literary critics, etc. are the examples of social dialects. A single word can be used in different areas in different ways for eg. Friend- gudy, machan, annan, aliyan etc. are the examples of regional dialects.

Register, on the other hand, refers to the level of formality or informality of language used in a particular context. Different registers can be used in different situations or settings, such as in formal or informal writing, academic or casual conversation, or professional or personal communication. Register can be influenced by factors such as social context, audience, purpose, and genre. For example, the language used in a legal document will be more formal and technical than the language used in a personal letter. The different types of registers are formal, informal, technical, poetic, frozen (static), and intimate register

While dialect and register are distinct concepts, they can also intersect and influence each other. For example, speakers of a particular dialect may use different registers in different contexts, such as using a more formal register in a job interview than when talking with friends.

2.3. Understanding the Language background of the students

We can understand the different cultures of a student as a language reflects one's culture. It fosters improved understanding between learners and develops cultural pluralism and openness to and appreciation of other cultures. The linguistic diversity of the nation demands an understanding of linguistic variations etc. The linguistic and cultural diversity of India and the multicultural background of the students demands the need for understanding the linguistic background of the learner. Learners' language background is one of the factors which may influence the amount and functions of own-language use in academic language instruction.

2.3.1. Home language vs. School language

Home language basically refers to the language we use at home and outside of school to converse with our family members, friends, relatives, etc. In simple terms, it's our mother tongue. Home language is that which we use to directly express what we feel, think or want, without any complications.

On the other hand, school language may refer to the language/medium of instruction used by the teacher to teach and made compulsory for students to speak. This language is not necessarily used by students outside the school premises. School language tends to be a model for what one can use later on in life in formal situations (an interview, a meeting, so on and so forth).

Interference of home language with school language is seen in three realms. It has a negative impact in the understanding of sounds and in pronouncing words in the school language, in understanding and using structural variations, in learning the grammar of the language, and in learning the vocabulary/confusion at the phonetic, structural and lexical levels may occur.

2.3.2. First and Second language Learners

The first language is 'acquired' and the second language is learned'. The difference between these two words describes the qualities of the two languages. A first language is the mother tongue or native language of a person while a second language is a language a person learns in order to communicate with the native speaker of that language.

The first language is like an instinct which is triggered by birth and developed with the experience of being exposed to it. A second language is a personal choice of a person. There is no other alternative to a first language. A person cannot decide his/her first language. It comes to him/her as an inheritance. On the other hand, a second language is always fixed by the person. There are many alternatives to a second language. A person/community can choose a second language among other languages. The acquiring process of the first language is very rapid while the learning process of the second language can vary from language to language and from person to person, but can never be as rapid as the first language acquisition.

The following are the factors of difference for the first language and the second language learners.

1. Age: It is the most important factor that makes a second language totally different from the first language. Children of the age of6 who have already acquired full proficiency in their first language is most capable of learning a second language. Adults usually find it difficult to learn a new language when they become too accustomed to their first/native language.

2. Personality: A child's personality does not usually make that much of difference in the acquisition of the first language. But it makes a huge difference in the learning process of the second language. In the second language learning process, the learners with an introvert personality usually make slow progress than the learners with an extrovert personality

3. Culture: The first language is one of the most important factors of a person's culture. But a second language is not that important in anyone's culture. However, the second language has some effects on the culture of a person but not significant enough to be counted as an element of that culture.

4. Motivation: It is an important factor for second language learning. A learner with good motivation to learn a second language is likely to learn that language faster. But the acquisition of the first language does not require any motivation because it is a natural phenomenon. The first language is acquired subconsciously and there is no need for motivation to acquire it.

5. Mother Tongue: The first language is the mother tongue of a person. The second language learning depends a lot on the structures of the first language. If the structure of the first language is similar to the second language, it will be easy and fast for the learners to internalize it. For instance, an English native speaker will find Dutch easier to learn than Hindi as a second language.

A first language and a second language both have their effects on each other. However. as we have learned that the first language is natural and has a solid base in a person's intellectual and psychological development, the first language is not affected by the second language as much as the second language is affected by the first language.

2.3.3. Language used in teaching the subject - issues and Challenges

Two distinct types of language acquisition include (a) BICS: Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills and (b) CALP: Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency.

Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills encompass the social language that we use on a regular basis - to make plans with friends, to talk about our daily activities, etc. It is usually the first step in acquiring another language. However, the language that is needed for academic success is different. Academic language requires more technical vocabulary, more sophisticated sentence structure, and a nuanced understanding of how language is used within academic disciplines. It takes much longer to develop the Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency that will enable students to succeed in higher level studies

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency in the disciplines requires knowledge of precise, sometimes technical language as well as familiarity with notations and symbols that may vary from one culture to another. Language word problems commonly contain more advanced grammatical structures, such as indirect speech and the passive voice. Linking words within sentences and transitional words or phrases among sentences carry important meaning that may not catch the attention of non-native speakers of English.

Academic language is the language needed by students to do the work in schools. It includes, for example, discipline-specific vocabulary, grammar and punctuation, and applications of rhetorical conventions and devices that are typical for a content area (e.g., essays, lab reports, discussions of a controversial issue.) One of the goals for the learning segment should be to further develop students' academic language abilities. This means that our learning objectives should focus on language as well as on content. Some of the challenges are listed below:

• Creating shared objectives for language development in higher education

• Allocating sufficient resources to language development

• Implementing a post-entry language assessment

• Ensuring students take up language development opportunities.

The language used in teaching a subject can have significant implications for learning outcomes and student engagement. Some of the issues and challenges associated with language use in teaching include:

1. Language proficiency: Teachers need to have a high level of proficiency in the language they are teaching in order to effectively communicate complex concepts and engage students in meaningful discussions. If a teacher's language skills are not up to par, it can lead to misunderstandings, confusion, and disengagement among students.

2. Language diversity: In many educational contexts, students come from diverse linguistic backgrounds and may not have the same level of proficiency in the language of instruction. Teachers need to be sensitive to these differences and provide support and accommodations to help all students succeed.

3. Cultural relevance: The language used in teaching should be culturally relevant and appropriate for the students' background and experiences. If the language is overly formal, technical, or unfamiliar, it can create a sense of disconnection or alienation among students.

4. Language barriers: Language barriers can be a major obstacle to effective teaching and learning. Teachers need to be aware of the linguistic needs and abilities of their students and use strategies such as visual aids, gestures, and simplified language to facilitate communication and understanding.

5. Bilingual education: In some educational contexts, bilingual education is used to help students learn subject matter in their native language and gradually transition to the language of instruction. This approach can help to bridge the gap between different linguistic and cultural backgrounds and promote more equitable learning outcomes.

Overall, the language used in teaching a subject is a complex and multifaceted issue that requires careful consideration and attention to the needs of both teachers and students. By being aware of these challenges and using effective language teaching strategies, teachers can create a more engaging, supportive, and effective learning environment for all students.

MODULE 3

LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM: CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS

3.1 LAC Concept

            Language across curriculum is a concept that refers to the integration of language learning into all subject areas of the curriculum. This approach recognizes that language is not just a subject to be taught in isolation but a tool for learning, communication, and understanding. Language across curriculum aims to promote language proficiency, critical thinking, and subject area knowledge simultaneously. In this essay, we will explore the concept of language across curriculum, its benefits, and challenges.

The concept of language across curriculum recognizes that language is the medium through which students learn and communicate about various subject areas. It emphasizes the use of language as a tool for critical thinking, comprehension, and expression. This approach is based on the belief that students learn best when they can use language to engage with subject matter, rather than simply memorizing and regurgitating information.

In language across curriculum, teachers incorporate language learning strategies into their subject-specific lessons to help students develop a deeper understanding of subject matter. For example, a science teacher might use language activities to teach scientific vocabulary and concepts, while an English teacher might use literary analysis to teach students how to read and interpret complex texts.

The benefits of language across curriculum are numerous. First, it promotes a deeper understanding of subject matter. By incorporating language learning strategies into subject-specific lessons, students can engage with material at a deeper level, leading to a more profound understanding of the content.

Second, language across curriculum promotes language proficiency. By using language learning strategies in different subject areas, students can develop their language skills in a variety of contexts. This leads to improved language proficiency and a greater ability to communicate effectively in different settings.

Third, language across curriculum promotes critical thinking. By using language to engage with subject matter, students can develop their analytical and critical thinking skills. This leads to a greater ability to analyze complex information and draw conclusions based on evidence.

However, implementing language across curriculum can also present challenges. First, teachers need to be trained in language learning strategies and be able to incorporate them into subject-specific lessons. This requires a significant investment of time and resources.

Second, language across curriculum can be challenging for students who are not proficient in the language of instruction. Teachers need to be aware of the language needs of their students and provide appropriate support to ensure that all students can participate in class activities.

In conclusion, language across curriculum is a powerful approach to teaching that recognizes the integral role of language in learning and understanding subject matter. By promoting language proficiency, critical thinking, and subject area knowledge simultaneously, language across curriculum offers numerous benefits to students. However, implementing this approach can present challenges that need to be addressed through teacher training and support for language learners.

LAC emphasizes that language development is the responsibility of all teachers across the school and in all subject areas as each subject area has its own specific language usage, style, specialized vocabulary and different writing genres. Language teachers introduce and teach language skills, reinforcing them from time to time in language lessons. Content subject teachers re-teach those skills or introduce related skills/concepts in their lesson, integrating language and content. For example, the idea of suffixes has been introduced in English lessons. The History teacher can introduce the new suffix -ism' and give examples such as 'communism' or 'colonialism', or consolidate familiar suffixes, like 'ion' in 'rebellion'.

3.2 Origins of the LAC

Language Across the Curriculum as a concept developed in the late 70s and early 80s of the last centuries. It originated in Great Britain, where the idea of linking LAC with school language policies as a whole received formal recognition after it was mentioned in Bullock Report (entitled A Language for Life):

"Each school should have an organized language policy for language across the curriculum, establishing every teacher's involvement in language and reading development throughout the years of schooling".

Chapter 12 of the Bullock Report (1975) emphasized three essential elements:

.1 Language crosses the curriculum

2. Every teacher is therefore by definition a language teacher

3. Every school should have a (whole) language policy.

The Bullock Report looked mainly at language in the context of the mother tongue. However, in many cases, the conclusions can be applied to the foreign language context, in particular the notion that language crosses the curriculum. A decade later this was underlined in the Swann Report (Education for Al):

"Unless there is a school language and learning policy across the curriculum there will be wastage of effort and often confusion".

The ideas of LAC itself, which had received real impetus in that report, have somewhat changed over time, they were also influenced by work outside Britain.

3.3 Basic Tenets of LAC

The basic tenets on which LAC rests focus on the importance of language in and for school education, for all subject- matter learning, across the whole curriculum.

·         Language develops mainly through its purposeful use (domains to be broadened).

·         Learning often involves talking, writing, shaping and moving (in reaction to perceptions).

·         Learning often occurs more through talking and writing as much as through shaping and moving

·         Language use contributes to or is a pre-requisite for cognitive development

·         Language is the medium for reflecting learning, for improving it for becoming autonomous.

3.4 Need and Scope

The language is always believed to play a central role in learning. No matter what the subject area, students assimilate new concepts when they listen, talk, read and write about what they are learning. As such, language acts as a vehicle for educational development and is important for the apprehension and acquisition of knowledge. In the educational context Language Across the curriculum:

·         Provides opportunities for better comprehension and making use of knowledge.

·         Supports language development in all domains and each activity of the school.

·         Supports meaningful learning.

·         Provides the same kind of educational experience for all with regard to the learning of languages.

·         Develops multilingualism by becoming culturally sensitive and knowledgeable.

·         Helps schools to mentor confident language users.

·         Develops autonomous learners capable of linking language with their learning.

·         Allows all teachers to work towards a common goal.

·         Provides cognitively engaging contexts for language practice and integrates language development with content learning.

3.5 Advantages and Limitations of Language Across the Curriculum

As Language Across Curriculum offers a more realistic and functional learning of foreign language, it helps students become effective user of the language in day today communication as well as in academic and professional aspects of communication. Adopting the concept of Language Across the Curriculum would:

·         Enable teachers to contribute and get support in dealing with language in learning issues as well as to work for a common target.

·         Use the language to teach more effectively and help students learn more effectively.

·         Help the students to minimize the problems of adjusting to the new medium of instruction and to learn the subject content better.

·         Help schools to mentor confident language users.

·         Develop autonomous learners capable of linking language with their learning.

·         Provide same kind of educational experience for all with regard to learning of languages.

·         Help develop plurilingualism or multilingualism by assisting learners of different languages to become linguistically and culturally sensitive and knowledgeable.

·         Facilitates a more flexible and authentic foreign language acquisition.

It also provides many other benefits including greater academic achievement, greater cognitive development and more positive attitude towards other languages and cultures. Besides these advantages there are some limitations too.

·         It is important for language teachers and content subject teachers to each know what the other is doing. For instance, the English teacher can teach students how to do a vocabulary log. The content subject teachers then ask students to keep a vocabulary log for their own subject.

·         As every subject has to contribute to the language development of students, a balance between an emphasis on language and an emphasis on content is recommended.

·         Since more time and effort has to be spent on the development of students' language proficiency, the subject content may have to be reduced, especially at the initial stages.

MODULE 4

MODELS OF LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM

4.1 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)

Content and Language Integrated Learning is a term created in 1994 by David Marsh and Anne Maljers as a curriculum innovation in Finland. It is an approach for learning content through an additional language (foreign or second), thus teaching both the subject and the language.

Content and Language Integrated Learning refers ot any dual-focused educational context in which an additional language, thus not usually the first language of the learners involved, is used as a medium in the teaching and learning of non- language content. It is dual-focused because whereas attention may be predominantly on either subject-specific content or language, both are always accommodated. It enables the non-native speakers of English to communicate in the target language. They communicate what their education has enabled them to discover. They also communicate what this planet earth has revealed to them. It refers to situations where subjects, or part of subjects, are taught through a foreign language, or parts of subjects, are taught through a second language with dual focused aims, namely the learning of content and the simultaneous learning of a foreign language.

The 'content' in CLIL is the non-language subjects such as science, mathematics, history, arts etc. The 'language' in CLIL is the language of learning, the language for learning and the language through learning. Learning acts as a mediating tool through which content and language are co-constructed.

The primary aim of a teacher of CLIL is to ensure that within a given space and time, there is progress in learning of a second language as well as the learning of content introduced in the class. The objectives may vary from class to class in order to fulfil the intended aim of the CLIL teacher. It is therefore understood that the role of the teacher in this regard is two-pronged- to achieve the objective of learning content, and use the target language. In the event of integrating language and content by the teacher, it is understood that the content for language learning will serve the stated dual purpose of learning of language was using authentic. While learning language and content simultaneously, the students' metacognitive ability is enabled, thus, commanding a degree of control over the pace and depth of one's learning. The level of motivation is raised to learn a second language through specific content.

Challenges

·         Understanding how content can be integrated into a multilingual context

·         To diversify the content for students of different language backgrounds

·         To make the language of the content the language of the class especially if diverse language learners are present in class

·         Need for multiple foci

·         To develop creative and constructive language and content learning environment

·         To make learning authentic, real and natural for the students

·         Adequate resources or support structures and co-operation from teachers

·         Need for competent educators

Educational implications

v  CLIL introduce the wider cultural context

v  Prepare for internationalization

v  Access International Certification and enhance the school profile

v  Improve overall and specific language competence, prepare for future studies and working life

v  Develop multilingual interests and attitudes

v  Diversify methods and forms of classroom teaching and learning

v  Increase learner motivation

4.2 Bilingual Teaching

Bilingual teaching is defined as the teaching of academic content in two languages, in a native and secondary language with varying amounts of each language used in accordance with the need. The primary goal of bilingual teaching is not necessarily to teach native or a second language, but to teach children concepts, knowledge and skills through the language they know best and reinforce this information through the second language. Bilingual teaching necessitates rethinking the entire curriculum in terms of a child's best instruments for learning, of his/her readiness for learning various subjects, and his/her own identity and potential for growth and development.

Advantages

Ø  The mastery of foreign language is deepened as it provides support for learners to engage in conversations and actively use the academic language of their subject.

Ø  The understanding of words and sentences in foreign languages can be made easier by the use of mother tongue.

Ø  There is no need to create artificial situations for explaining the meaning of words and sentences of the target language.

Ø  The teacher can save time as the mother tongue is used.

Ø  It sustains student interest.

Ø  This method is less costly as the use of teaching aids is minimum.

Ø  It is less strenuous for teachers.

Disadvantages

§  It cannot be applied in multi linguistic group.

§  It requires teachers well versed ni both languages.

§  Frequent comparison and contrast with mother tongue may cause confusion.

§  This method diverges the attention of students.

§  It spoils the continuity and fluency of the language.

§  It can lead to defective pronunciation.

§  It reduces student's exposure to the target language.

4.3 Language for Specific Purposes (LSP)

Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) refers to the use of a particular language to meet the specific communicative needs of a particular group of people in a specific context or field. The aim of LSP is to provide learners with the language skills and knowledge needed to effectively communicate in a specific professional or academic setting.

LSP is often used in language teaching and learning, where it is important for students to have a command of the language that is appropriate for their professional or academic goals. For example, LSP might be used in teaching English to students who plan to work in a specific industry, such as healthcare, engineering, or law. In such cases, the language and vocabulary used in the course would be tailored to the needs of the industry.

LSP courses typically focus on the specific vocabulary, grammar, and communication skills needed for a particular profession or field. They may also include specialized materials, such as technical manuals, scientific articles, or legal documents, which students are expected to read and understand in the target language.

Overall, LSP is an important approach to language learning that helps students develop the skills they need to communicate effectively in specific professional or academic settings.

Features of LSP

ü  Learner-centered

ü  Second/foreign language training

ü  Needs-based

ü  Involving stakeholders

ü  Characterized by collaboration with workplace/content experts

ü  Meets the specific needs of the learners

ü  Work specific

4.4 Academic Language Teaching (ALT)

Academic language refers to the oral, written, auditory, and visual language proficiency required to learn effectively in schools and academic programs. It is the language of school and it is used in textbooks, essays, assignments, class presentations and assessments. It is the language that students are expected to learn and achieve fluency in. Academic language is used at all grade levels, although its frequency increases as students get older. It is the language needed by students to understand words in context and to use language that can convey ideas clearly without causing any confusion in the listener's mind. In other words, Academic language is the language used by teachers to impart new information and to describe ideas clearly so as to increase student understanding. It is more refined than the usual conversational style.

Academic language teaching is the ability to relate events in a convincing and accurate manner, make comparisons in a clear manner, make judgements based on textual evidences, have good knowledge of the different forms of words and use content-specific vocabulary and modes of expression needed in that content area. The teaching of the Academic Language component, (vocabulary, grammar, syntax, style, etc.) is complex and requires a deep understanding of the language demands of the content. For example, challenging language demands in math include: symbolic notation; visual displays, such as charts and graphs; technical vocabulary: and grammatical features such as complex noun phrases.

 

MODULE 5

OPERATOI NALISING LANGUAGE ACROSS CURRICULUM IN CLASSROOM

5.1 Academic language across Subjects

Academic language is the oral and written language used for academic purposes. It is the "language of the discipline" used to engage students in learning and includes the means by which students develop and express content understandings. Academic Language is believed to be one of the most important factors in the academic success. It is the language needed by students to do the work in schools. It includes, for example, discipline-specific vocabulary, grammar and punctuation, and applications of rhetorical conventions and devices that are typical for a content area (e.g., essays, lab reports, discussions of a controversial issue). In school, students use language to make sense of the world that surrounds them, and, in the process, they are (1) learning language, (2) learning through language, and (3) learning about language.

The register of academic language generally includes features that are used across all academic subjects; each particular subject then has additional features of its own. Features can include pronunciation, intonation, words chosen or not chosen, particular meanings of words, preferred sentence structures, accepted discourse patterns, common ways of accomplishing functions of language, and pragmatic rules.

Components: components of academic language are as follows:

1. Vocabulary: Academic language requires a range of vocabulary, including discipline-specific terms, technical jargon, and words with precise meanings. It also requires knowledge of academic vocabulary such as transition words and phrases.

2. Grammatical structures: Academic language uses complex sentence structures with multiple clauses and a variety of conjunctions and linking words. It also uses a range of tenses, voice, and mood to convey precise meanings.

3. Functions: Academic language serves specific functions such as describing, analyzing, comparing, contrasting, explaining, and synthesizing information. The language is used to make arguments, present evidence, and support claims.

4.Text structures: Academic language follows specific text structures depending on the genre of the text. For example, an argumentative essay will have an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. A lab report will have a methodology section, results section, and a discussion section.

In addition to the components listed above, academic language also requires critical thinking skills, cultural knowledge, and the ability to use appropriate register and tone. It is important to note that the components of academic language may vary depending on the discipline or subject area.

5.2 Informational Reading and Writing across Subjects

Reading is the complex cognitive process of decoding symbols ot derive meaning. It si a form of language processing. Success in this process is measured as reading comprehension. Reading is a means for language acquisition, communication, and sharing information and ideas. General purposes of reading are reading for pleasure, to find general information, to skim for general information, to integrate information and critique texts, etc.

Informational reading is to inform readers about something which are not fictional in nature. Examples of informational texts include a table of contents, an index, bold or italicized text, glossaries for specialized vocabulary, embedded definitions for § specialized vocabulary, realistic illustrations of photos, captions, and other labels, and graphs and charts, question and answer books, reference books, etc. When you read a National Geographic article about the polar ice caps melting, or scan a local news feature about the rise in unemployment rates, you're reading informational writing.

Informational writing is a type of nonfiction writing that conveys information about something, which means it is factual. Many examples of informational writing can be found in newspapers, almanacs, and reference books. Informational text is often organized so the reader can easily and quickly find information. Informative writing educates readers by imparting straightforward information and facts, but never personal opinions.

5.3 Nature of Classroom discourse

Discourses and Class room discourses

Discourses are written or spoken communication. It is a formal, orderly and usually extended expression of thought on a subject and the contextual needs.

Classroom discourses are a linguistic unit (such as a conversation or a story) larger than a sentence. Classroom discourse is an essential component in teaching and in building a classroom community. It is the language that teachers and students use to communicate with each other in the classroom. Talking or conversation is the medium through which most teaching takes place. The ability to use oral language to communicate effectively is a key foundation for academic success as well as social and economic participation across the life span. The ability to use language effectively impacts on children's learning, their social behavior in and out of the classroom and their ability to develop literacy and numeracy skills. It not only improves their basic conversational skills but also instils them with the tools needed to understand and talk about academic topics in the target language.

Classroom discourses are chiefly academic discourses that emphasize expression of a language either through the oral or written modes. Oral discourse is just as it sounds. It is communication or transfer of information using words that are spoken. It includes congratulating, ordering, demanding, promising, hinting, warning, or greeting etc. Written discourse is also the transfer of information, but, as its name suggests, it involves the written word. Examples of written discourse are essay, paragraph, article, short notes, reports, story, diary entry, poster, letter, summary etc.

Nature of Classroom discourse refers to the way in which teachers and students interact through language in the classroom. The nature of classroom discourse is influenced by a variety of factors, such as the teacher's teaching style, the students' learning style, the subject matter being taught, the age and culture of the students, and the physical environment of the classroom.

Effective classroom discourse should aim to promote learning and create a positive learning environment. It should encourage students to actively participate, express their thoughts and ideas, and engage in critical thinking. Classroom discourse should also be inclusive, respectful, and promote equality and diversity. Teachers can achieve this by using strategies such as asking open-ended questions, promoting dialogue and discussion, encouraging active listening, providing feedback, and using various modes of communication, such as verbal and nonverbal cues.

However, the nature of classroom discourse can also be impacted by negative factors such as classroom management issues, lack of engagement from students, language barriers, and power imbalances. Teachers must be aware of these factors and take steps to mitigate them in order to ensure that classroom discourse remains positive and effective.

The nature of classroom discourse encompasses a variety of aspects, including oral language, discussion as a tool for learning, and the nature of questioning in the classroom.

1. Oral language plays a significant role in classroom discourse, as it is the primary means of communication between teachers and students. Effective classroom discourse involves the use of clear, concise language that is appropriate for the students' age and language proficiency level. Teachers should also model good oral language skills, such as proper pronunciation, intonation, and pacing.

2. Discussion is another important tool for learning in the classroom. It encourages students to express their thoughts and ideas, engage in critical thinking, and learn from each other. Discussions can take many forms, such as small group discussions, whole-class discussions, or debates. Teachers should facilitate these discussions by providing clear prompts and guidelines, encouraging active listening, and asking open-ended questions that promote deeper thinking.

3. The nature of questioning in the classroom is also an important aspect of classroom discourse. Effective questioning can help students clarify their understanding, make connections, and engage in higher-order thinking. Teachers should use a variety of questioning techniques, such as asking open-ended questions, using wait time, and using probing questions to encourage students to elaborate on their responses. It is also important for teachers to provide feedback on student responses and to create a supportive environment where students feel comfortable sharing their thoughts and ideas.

There are several types of questions that teachers may ask in the classroom. These include:

1. Open-ended questions: These are questions that require more than a one-word answer and often elicit a range of responses from students. For example, "What do you think is the main message of this story?"

2. Closed-ended questions: These are questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no or a short phrase. For example, "Did you understand the math problem?"

3. Leading questions: These are questions that suggest a particular answer or point of view. For example, "Don't you think the main character was wrong to do that?"

4. Probing questions: These are follow-up questions that teachers use to encourage students to elaborate on their answers or provide more detail. For example, "Can you give an example of how you would apply this concept in real life?"

The teacher's role in asking questions is (1) to promote critical thinking and encourage active participation in the classroom.

2. Teachers should use a variety of question types to stimulate discussion and engage all students in the learning process.

3. Additionally, they should provide feedback and guide students in their responses to help them develop their thinking skills and deepen their understanding of the subject matter.

4. Finally, teachers should create a safe and respectful classroom environment where all students feel comfortable asking and answering questions.

In summary, the nature of classroom discourse is multifaceted and involves the use of oral language, discussion as a tool for learning, and effective questioning techniques. By using these strategies, teachers can create a positive and engaging learning environment that promotes student learning and success.

5.4. Designing Teaching Manual for LAC

1. Details

2. Content Outline

3. Content Analysis:

            Terms, Facts and concepts

4. Curricular Objectives

5. Language Objectives: To develop learners listening, speaking, reading and writing skills

6. Listening Outcome:

ü  Pupils develop the competency in acquiring the knowledge of above-mentioned terms, facts, and concepts.

ü  Pupils develop competency in apply in the above concepts and process to analyses new situation

7. Linguistic Outcome:

Ø  The learners develop competency in speaking and expressing their view points

Ø  The pupils develop competency in reading and comprehending the text.

8. Pre-requisite

9. Learning Strategy

10. learning Materials

11. Activity

Introductory Activity, developing activity, concluding and follow-up activity with Reponses.