MODULE 1 PERSONALITY OF THE LEARNER
The word "personality"
originates from the Latin word persona, which
means "mask" or “false face” which
Greek actors used to wear when acting on stage. Personality
as a
field of study began with Hippocrates. Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking,
feeling and behaving. It is the combination of behaviour, emotion,
motivation, and thought patterns that
define an individual. It is the unique combination of patterns that influence
behaviour, thought, motivation, and emotion in a human being.
Kurt Lewin defines, “Personality as a dynamic totality
of systems present in the individual.”
Nature of Personality:
1. Personality is something unique and specific. Every one of us
is a unique person in oneself.
2. Personality includes
everything about a person.
3. Personality is dynamic and moving force. It changes
from day to day.
4.
Personality is not just a collection of traits. It is a unique organisation of behaviours that
functions as a unified whole.
5.
Personality cannot be judges by only looking at his physical appearance
rather it is the study
of totality.
6. Personality is the combination of Id, Ego and Super Ego.
7. It is the product of heredity and environment.
8.
It is the end product of learning.
Acquisition of new experiences contributes to the growth
and development of
personality.
9. Personality continually adjusting itself to environment.
10. Personality can be measured
and appraised
Types - Introversion/extroversion by Jung
Carl Gustav Jung was
a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst
who founded analytical psychology. According to type theories, for example, introverts
and extraverts are two fundamentally different categories of people.
According to Jung there are two mutually exclusive attitudes –
extroversion and introversion. Each
person seems to be energized more by either the external world (extraversion)
or the internal world (introversion).
Extroversion means “outward-turning” and introversion means “inward-turning”.
Introversion:
Introversion
is a personality trait characterized by a preference for internal experiences
and a focus on one's inner world of thoughts, feelings, and ideas. Introverts
tend to recharge their energy by spending time alone or in quieter, less
stimulating environments. They often enjoy solitary activities, introspection,
and deep reflection. Introverts may have smaller social circles and prefer
meaningful one-on-one interactions rather than large group settings. They tend
to be more reserved, thoughtful, and deliberate in their actions and decision-making
processes. It's important to note that introversion does not equate to shyness
or social anxiety. Introverts can be confident and socially skilled but may
simply have a different preference for social engagement.
Extroversion:
Extroversion is a personality trait characterized by a preference for external experiences and a focus on the external world of people, events, and activities. Extroverts gain energy from social interactions and external stimulation. They enjoy being around others, engaging in group activities, and seeking out new experiences. Extroverts tend to be more outgoing, talkative, and expressive in their behaviors and communication styles. They often thrive in social settings and may have larger social networks. Extroverts are generally energized by socializing and may feel drained or depleted when alone for extended periods, needing external stimulation to recharge.
1.2. Mature and Integrated personality – characteristics
A).
Mature personality is a unique pattern of life, emerging from the harmonious integration of several traits. A mature
person intellectually is someone who knows how to take decisions in life, rather than using emotions, using rationality
which means takes decisions based on reason. All the cognitive, affective, conative and physical aspects
are equally developed
and balanced in a mature personality. According to Allport a mature personality has six characteristics
(criteria).
1.
Sense of self: Mature people care about
other people as much as they care about themselves. Immature people are self-absorbed
and ego-centric.
2.
Cordiality: Mature people can be
intimately involved with others
without being possessive or jealous or controlling. They accept people
for who they are.
3.
Emotional security: Mature people can control
their appetites. They have a sense of proportion.
Immature people seem at the mercy of their drives, desires and appetites. They
over- react to threats and disappointments.
4.
Recognition of outer
reality: The mature person lives in the real world and react
to the problems of life rationally.
5.
Self-insight: Mature people see themselves more or
less as others see them whereas immature people and also have a sense
of humour.
6.
A unifying philosophy of
life: A
mature personality has developed a sound philosophy of life that allows him to
interpret life’s purpose and long term goals.
B. Integrated personality is one in whom various
aspects of personality are working in a harmonious
and effective manner. The integration of personality is the integration of all
psycho- physical traits of personality.
According to Guilford, Integrated personality emerges from the synthesis of seven cardinal traits – physiology, needs, interests, attitude, temperament, aptitude and morphology.
·
In an integrated personality, mind and emotions, desire
and determination, and all mental
activities work in an
organized way.
·
There is no conflict in an integrated personality.
·
In such a person, his ambitions and aspirations are in accordance
with his abilities.
·
An integrated personality is flexible, strong,
and organized as well as balanced.
·
A well-balanced person has realistic assessment of himself, his strength, and weakness.
·
He is emotionally mature and stable.
·
Fewer evidence of compensatory behaviour and accept
himself.
·
Leading to himself
being accepted by others.
·
Integrated personality implies harmony between
five important aspects
of personality:
a.
Harmony between one's abilities and capacities.
b.
Harmony among one's interests.
c.
Harmony between one's abilities and interests.
d.
Harmony between one's self concept
and social constraints.
e. Harmony between one's life goal and social codes of conduct.
1.2
Assessment of personality – objective, subjective and projective techniques
Personality assessment is a
proficiency in professional psychology
that involves the administration,
scoring, and interpretation of empirically supported measures of personality
traits and styles. A personality test
is a questionnaire or other standardized instrument designed to reveal aspects of an individual's character or
psychological makeup. Personality testing is very helpful because
it:
·
Tells us about a person's coping in general with stress and
life.
·
Tells us about how a person copes with specific stressful
situations or demands. (e.g., seriously depressed
and suicidal)
·
Can answer some question put
to us by others, like ability to hold some job, reach some goal, or likelihood of behaving in some way
· Can guide therapy and provide self-understanding for the client regarding strengths and weaknesses
A. Objective Tests
An objective
test is a psychological test that measures an individual's characteristics in a way that isn't influenced
by the examiner's own beliefs.
They usually involve the administration of a bank of
questions that are marked and compared against standardized scoring mechanisms,
in much the same way that school exams are administered. Objective
tests tend to
have more validity than
projective tests; however, they are still subject to the willingness and
ability of the examinee to.
The important objective methods are questionnaire,
inventory, rating scale, checklist, situational test and sociometry.
1. Questionnaire is a device composed of a series of questions designed to gather information about a certain topic. It can be administered via paper and
pencil, where respondents simply fill out a
survey form and send it back by mail or other means. However, information
gathered from questionnaires are typically subjected to statistical analysis.
Questionnaires may have close-ended questions such as multiple choice or Yes/No items, or open-ended questions such as sentence completion items, or straightforward questions asking about opinions or thoughts of the respondent about a certain topic.
The advantages of questionnaires
1.
Practical
2.
Large amounts of information can be collected
from a large number of people in a short
period of time and in a relatively cost-effective way
3.
Can be carried
out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect
to its validity and
reliability
4.
The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by either a researcher or through
the use of a software package
5.
Can be analysed
more 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of research
6.
When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may be used to measure change
7. Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or test existing hypotheses.
2. Personality
Inventory also called objective tests, are
standardized and can be administered to a number
of people at the same time. It is for self-appraisal or self-reporting. It
consists of statements or questions
about personal characteristics, feelings, worries, fears, preferences, lack of
confidence and the like. The personality inventory used most often
for diagnosing psychological disorders is the Minnesota Multi-Phasic Personality Inventory, generally referred
to as the MMPI.
Advantages:
1.
Inventory may help to identify the pupils who need guidance
in making proper
personal adjustment.
2.
Inventories stimulate the
people to critically evaluate their own personality characteristics.
Disadvantages:
1.
The replies to various
questions can be easily
faked.
2. The person may be ignorant
of certain traits or qualities which he may possess
3. Rating Scale is another method of measuring
personality, in which we rate an individual
of the
possession or absence of certain traits on a certain scale. It is used to quantify an observation or
it indicates the amount of particular
psychological trait of
characteristics possessed by an individual. A rating
is
a
set
of
categories designed to
elicit
information about
a quantitative or a qualitative attribute.
·
Standardization: The largest advantage and purpose of rating
scales is the standardization they
create. They provide a method to compare different objects, people, or things
in a structured fashion—ranging from a quantitative to qualitative analysis.
·
Broad: Rating scales work as a general system; therefore,
appraisals and assessments can be created for almost anything by altering a rating scale slightly.
·
Fairness: By providing a system that is fair, equality can be
reached in a more successful manner than other systems of comparisons that are
more subjective in nature.
·
Simple: The reason rating scales are so prevalent is that they are
simple and easy to
understand. They provide a significant amount of data and allow people
to view it in a very clear and concise manner—making decisions easier. This simplicity and logic has contributed
to the popularity of rating scales.
·
One way to get around the ambiguity
inherent in graphic
rating scales is to use behaviour based
scales, in which specific work related
behaviours are assessed.
· More validity comparing students’ ratings from a single teacher than comparing two students who were rated by different teachers.
4. Checklist is a selected list of words, phrases or sentences following which an
observer records a check to denote the presence or absence
of whatever being observed. Checklists are often presented as lists with small checkboxes. A small
tick or checkmark is drawn in the box after
the item has been completed. When we
want to assess whether some traits are present in the behaviour of an individual
Advantages:
·
Easy, quick, and efficient
·
Don’t have to be
trained to use it
·
Can use in presence of the child or later
·
Several observers
can gather the same information to check for reliability
·
Focus on many behaviors at one time
·
Useful for
curriculum planning for individuals
Disadvantages:
·
“Closed” in
nature, can only observe
what is stated in the
checklist
·
Limited to “presence” or “absence” of behavior
·
Lack of
information about quality and duration of behaviour and a description
5. Situational Test
In situational test subject is placed in some specific
situations and the traits of his personality has ascertained. The situations are artificially created
in which the individual is expected to perform acts related to personality traits under testing.
6. Sociometry is a quantitative method for measuring social relationships. It is a technique of assessing the social relationships among members in a group through the measurement of the frequency of acceptance or nonacceptance between the individuals who constitute the group. It was developed by psychotherapist Jacob L. Moreno in his studies of the relationship between social structures and psychological well-being. Moreno defined sociometry as "the inquiry into the evolution and organization of groups and the position of individuals within them." In a class the children are asked to select those with whom they would like to play or work. Each child make the choice and from this data teacher can construct a social map which is known as sociogram. Sociogram will help the teacher to identify the stars, cliques, mutuals and isolates. Stars are those who are chosen by many, cliques are those who are exclusively by themselves, mutuals are unit of two individuals and isolates are those who are chosen by nobody.
·
The social map directly
helps the teacher in the management of the class activities.
·
It will tell the teacher
whether class is a
well-knit or loosely-knit group
·
It will help teacher to prevent social
mal adjustment in pupils, and to promote social unity.
·
The sociogram by itself is unable to revel the reasons for social relationships.
·
It is not free from halo-effect.
·
It often results
in the labelling of some children as maladjusted or inferior.
B. Subjective Tests:
the individual is expected to perform
The important
subjective methods are observation, case study, interview,
anecdotal records and cumulative records.
1. Observation (watching what people do) would seem to be an obvious
method of carrying out assessment in
psychology. It means the examination of something, especially for the purpose
of collecting data. It refers to
inspection of the overt behaviour of a person in appropriate situations. There are
different types of observational methods.
a. Participant Observationb. Non-Participant Observationc. Controlled Observation d. Uncontrolled observation
2. Case study is in-depth investigation of a single person, group, event or
community. The case that is the subject of the inquiry will be an instance
of a class of phenomena that provides an analytical frame within which the study is conducted and which the case
illuminates and explains. Typically, data are gathered from
a variety of
sources and by
using several different
methods (e.g., observations
and interviews). The research may also continue for an extended period of time, so processes
and developments can be studied as they happen. The case history
supplies all the large and small facts related to his environment
and heredity and in reality, the personality found out.
3. Interview is a technique of eliciting information directly from the
subject about his personality in face
to face contacts. It gives an opportunity to mutual exchange of ideas and
information between the subject and
the psychologist. After taking the subject into confidence, the psychologist
tries to seek answer to his pre-planned questions. The interviewer in one-to-one conversation collects detailed personal information from
individuals using oral questions. Quite often interviews will be recorded
by the researcher and the data written
up as a transcript (a written account
of interview
questions and answers) which can be analysed at a later date.
Interviews are broadly classified into two – unstructured
and structured.
4. Anecdotal Record is an observational method used
frequently in classroom or learning settings
in which the teacher summarizes a single developmental incident after
the event has occurred. It is a report
of informal teacher observation regarding his pupils. It contains a description
of the student’s conduct and
personality in terms of frequent, brief, concrete observation of the student
made and recorded by the teacher. The
recorded observations are intended to identify the child's current skill level, interests and skills to develop
next. Anecdotal records should always be objective recordings of the student's actions and behaviours.
The records should be written in a non-judgmental manner. With a collection of anecdotal records
about a student, the child's developmental progress can be documented and teaching can be tailored
to meet the student's individual needs.
1. Helpful in understanding the child’s behaviour in diverse
situation
2. Less time consuming
3. No special training needed
for the observer
4. Observer can catch an
unexpected incident no matter when it occurs, for it is usually recorded afterwards.
1. A careless recording of behaviour will do more harm than good
2. Depends on the memory
of the observer;
3. Difficult to use for research purposes.
5. Cumulative Record is
a confidential and systematic accumulation of significant factual
information about an individual student while at school. Hence
presenting a complete and growing picture
of the individual concerned for the purpose of helping him during his long stay
at school. It contains the results of
different assessment and judgments held from time to time during the course of study of a student or pupil. It holds
information regarding all aspects of life of the child or educed-physical, mental, social, moral and
psychological. It seeks to give as comprehensive picture as possible of the
personality of a child.
·
The teacher understands the potential in each child
and deals accordingly.
·
Recognition of the student’s mental
capability.
·
If properly maintained can be used a great deal to improve the standard, health and personality of the students in
school.
·
The entire data is
of little use if not collected properly.
·
Sometimes the information becomes so confusing
as the information is collected
by different teachers.
· It does not serve its purpose if not done secretly and confidentially.
C. Projective Measures
Projective measures, unlike objective tests, are
sensitive to the examiner's beliefs. Projective tests are based on Freudian
psychology (psychoanalysis) and seek to expose people's
unconscious perceptions by using ambiguous stimuli to reveal the inner
aspects of an individual's personality.
These tests are designed to uncover thoughts, emotions, fears, hopes, ambitions
and desires that may not be known to
the test taker. These techniques, on
account of their using projection
phenomena are called projective techniques. In many projective tests, the
participant is shown vague, ambiguous, unstructured stimulus objects
or situations in which the subject
“projects”
his or her personality, attitude, opinions and self-concept and then
asked to give the first response that
comes to mind.
·
Projective technique promoted
to reveal his unconscious behaviour
through imaginative production.
·
Psychological technique to get answers
without asking a direct
question
·
The use of vague, ambiguous, unstructured stimulus objects or
situations in which the subject “projects”
his or her personality, attitude, opinions and self-concept to give the
situation some structure
·
These techniques are based in the psychological phenomenon of
projection (attributing one’s own desires and feelings to others)
The most common of this type include the Rorschach
Inkblot Test, The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Children's Apperception Test (CAT), Sentence
Completion Test (SCT), Word Association Test, and Story
Telling or Story Completion Test etc.
1. Rorschach Inkblot Test
The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a projective psychological
test consisting of 10 inkblots printed
on 7 x 9.5 inch cards (five in black and white, five in colour) created in 1921
with the publication of Psychodiagnostik
by Hermann Rorschach, who graduated in medicine.
The card created by dribbling ink on
it and then folding over the paper to create a symmetrical design. Rorschach was a Freudian psychiatrist and
psychoanalyst. In the test,
individuals are shown 10 inkblots—one
at a time—and asked to report what objects or figures they see in each of them.
The test administrator then asks
questions about the responses, such as which part of the inkblot was linked to each response. This test can be
used to examine a person's personality characteristics and emotional
functioning, and is thought
to measure unconscious attitudes and motivations.
It requires some training on the part of the teacher in
order to interpret the responses satisfactorily.
2. . The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
The TAT was developed during the 1930s by the American
psychologist Henry A. Murray and
Christiana D. Morgan at the Harvard
Clinic at Harvard University.
The Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, is a projective
measure intended to evaluate a person's patterns
of thought, attitudes, observational capacity, and emotional responses
to ambiguous test materials.
The TAT is popularly known as the picture
interpretation technique. In the
case of the TAT, the ambiguous materials consist of a set of cards that portray
human figures in a variety
of settings and situations.
There are 31 picture cards in the standard form of the
TAT. Some of the cards show male figures,
some female, some both male and female figures, some of ambiguous gender, some
adults, some children, and some show
no human figures at all. One card is completely blank. Although the cards were originally designed to be
matched to the subject in terms of age and gender, any card may be used with any subject. Most
practitioners choose a set of approximately ten cards, either using cards that they feel are generally
useful, or that they believe will encourage the subject's expression of emotional conflicts relevant to their specific history and situation. The subject is asked to tell the examiner a story about
each card that includes the following elements: the event shown in the picture; what has led up to
it; what the characters in the picture are feeling and thinking; and the outcome of the
event.
3. Children’s Apperception Test (CAT)
The Children's Apperception Test, often
abbreviated as CAT, is an individually administered projective personality test appropriate for children aged three to 10 years. The Children's Apperception Test was developed
in 1949 by Leopold Bellak and Sonya Sorel Bellak. The CAT consists of ten pictures of animals in various life
situations. Each picture is presented by a
test administrator in the form of a card. The test is always
administered to an individual child; it should
never be given in group form. The test is not timed but normally takes 20–30
minutes. It should be given in a
quiet room in which the administrator and the child will not be disturbed by other people or activities. The pictures
are meant to encourage the children to tell stories related to competition, illness, injuries, body
image, family life, and school situations. The pictures draw out a child's
anxieties, fears, and psychological defences.
(Descriptions of the ten pictures are as follows: baby
chicks seated around a table with an adult
chicken appearing in the background; a large bear and a baby bear playing
tug-of-war; a lion sitting on a
throne being watched by a mouse through a peephole; a mother kangaroo with a
joey (baby kangaroo) in her pouch and
an older joey beside her; two baby bears sleeping on a small bed in front of a larger bed containing two
bulges; a cave in which two large bears are lying down next to a baby bear; a ferocious tiger leaping
toward a monkey who is trying to climb a tree; two adult monkeys sitting on a sofa while another adult monkey talks to a
baby monkey; a rabbit sitting on a child's
bed viewed through a doorway; and a puppy being spanked by an adult dog in
front of a bathroom.)
4. Picture Situation Index (PSI)
It is designed
by Morgan and Gaier
in 1956 to investigate perceptions, feelings, and attitudes of boys and their mothers with
respect to punishment. PSI consists
of 10 cards each depicting home situation
involving boy and his mother in conflict. As the child is presented with each picture in the series, he is invited
to tell what is happening in the picture, what the character in it might
say or do, and how they would feel. It will enable
children to discuss their problems.
5. Sentence Completion Test (SCT)
SCT consist a list of incomplete sentences. It is
generally open-ended. The subject is asked to
go through the list and answer as quickly as possible without giving a second
thought to his answers. After completing the sentences, the examiner gets an idea about the personality traits
of the child.
Ex: I am interested …………….
My ambition
is …………….
If I am given………………
My parents are ……………
One of the SCT is The Rotter Incomplete
Sentence Blank (Rotter-ISB) developed by Rotter
in 1950.
Carl Gustav Jung developed the Word Association Test to
diagnosis behavioural disorder. A list
of words or phrases can be presented in random order to respondents, who are
requested to state or write the word
or phrase that pops in to their mind. This
test usually consisted of a hundred stimulus
words that were read out singly to a subject who was to "answer as quickly as possible with the first word that occurs to you." (Respondents are
asked what word or phrase comes to mind immediately upon hearing certain
brand names.) The reaction time, verbal response,
and test
behaviour were recorded
and analysed. Verbal responses were classified according
to several linguistic categories and tht
revel the inner feelings of the child.
Story completion/Telling Test is a projective technique,
where respondents are given a part of
a story. They are requested to give the conclusion in their own words. While completing the story,
the child my reveal his
inner feelings, desires, and worries.
Advantages of Projective Techniques
1.
Projective measures expose certain aspects of personality
that are impossible to measure by means
of an objective test; for instance, they are more reliable at uncovering
unconscious personality traits or features.
2.
Projective personality tests
help us to see what the person is struggling with internally.
3.
There is amount,
richness and accuracy in the information that is
collected.
4.
A variety of projective
techniques are frequently used in the context of individual interviews or conventional focus group discussions.
5.
Help to open discussions around
socially sensitive issues,
where the client
may be embarrassed, or feel a lake of knowledge.
6.
Useful in
encouraging in subjects a state
of freedom and spontaneity of expression.
7.
They make little or no demand on literacy or academic skills, hence they are equally useful for children and adults, literates and illiterates.
1.
Highly trained interviewers and skilled interpreters are needed.
2.
Interpreters bias can be there.
3.
It is a costly method.
4.
The respondent
selected may not be representative of the entire
population.
5.
Having poor reliability and validity
6.
Lacking scientific evidence
7. Relying too much on the subjective judgment of a clinician.
1.3
A brief description of
Personality disorders:
Personality disorders refer to a group of mental health conditions characterized by enduring patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience that significantly deviate from cultural norms and expectations. These patterns are pervasive, inflexible, and typically lead to distress or impairment in various areas of life, including relationships, work, and self-functioning. There are several recognized types of personality disorders, as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5):
Paranoid
Personality Disorder:
Individuals with this disorder tend to be suspicious, mistrustful, and have a
pervasive distrust of others, interpreting their motives as malevolent.
It's important to note that the diagnosis and treatment of personality disorders should be conducted by qualified mental health professionals. Therapy approaches, such as dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and psychodynamic therapy, among others, can be helpful in addressing the symptoms and improving functioning for individuals with personality disorders.
1.4
Theories of personality – Psychoanalytic theory
(Freud), Lewin’s concept of personality
Several theories of personality to study the meaning and comprehensive nature of personality. These theories in one way or
another, try to describe the basic structure and underlying constructs of the personality.
I. Psychoanalytic theory (Freud)
Psychoanalysis is a set of psychological and psychotherapeutic theories
and associated techniques, created by Viennese
(Austrian) neurologist Sigmund Freud and stemming partly from the clinical work of Josef Breuer. Freud
stressed the study of human behaviour through the analysis of unconscious mental processes by using
the method of free association and dream analysis. It focuses on
understanding the unconscious motivation that
drives the behaviour. Psychoanalytic
theory has three major parts:
a. Theory of Personality dynamics
b. Theory of personality Structure
c.
Theory of Psyco-sexual Development
a. Theory of Personality
dynamics:
According to Freud, the human mind has three levels of consciousness
or human mind has three parts – the conscious, the subconscious
(preconscious) and the unconscious.
The conscious mind relates to phenomena
we are aware of at any given moment. It contains thoughts and
perceptions of which we are
aware a given moment.
The subconscious (preconscious) mind
relates to those experiences of which
the individual is not fully aware but
can be recalled easily. This layer stands between conscious and unconscious part of the mind. It contains memories and stored
knowledge.
The unconscious mind relates to those
phenomena of which we are unaware and usually
inaccessible to the conscious. The
Human behaviour is greatly influenced by forces operating in the
unconscious layer and hence
exploration of unconscious mind is required for any meaningful study of
behaviour. Freud believed that the most important part of psychic activity
is the unconsciousness.
b. Theory of Personality Structure:
According to Freud, the personality structure is made up
of three interlocking systems – id, ego
and super ego. Id (instinctive
desire), ego (reason based on real
experience) and super-ego (moral inhibition) are the three aspects
of our complete self or personality. Each of these systems
has its own properties and mechanisms. But they interact with one
another closely and human personality is the
outcome of such an
interaction.
a.
Id is the original source of
personality and it is the reservoir of psychic energy (libido). The personality of the new-born child is all id and
only later does it develop an ego and super-ego.
It is the primitive biological impulses in man consisting of everything that is
inherited psychologically, including
instinctual drives – sex and aggression. It is inborn and operates on animal level. It is unconscious in nature
and has no direct contact and validity. Id is guided by pleasure principle (the principle of avoiding pain and obtaining
pressure) To Sigmund
Freud, the libido is
the part of id and is the driving force
of all behaviour. Libido is a term used by in
psychoanalytic theory to describe the energy created by the survival and sexual
instincts but to Freud it represented all psychic energy and not just sexual energy. Human behaviour and personality,
while adapting to real physical and social world, is radically altered: but the
core personality remains what was laid down in childhood.
b. The Ego (or I) is 'that part of the id which has been modified by the
direct influence of the external
world. The ego develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the
external real world. It is the decision-making component
of personality. Ideally
the ego works by reason,
whereas the id is chaotic and totally unreasonable. The ego operates
according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways of
satisfying the id’s demands,
often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The ego
considers social realities and norms, etiquette
and rules in deciding how to behave. Like the id, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e. tension reduction) and avoids pain, but unlike the id the
ego is concerned with devising a realistic strategy to obtain pleasure.
The ego has no concept
of right or wrong; something
is good simply if it achieves its end of satisfying without
causing harm to itself or to the id.
c.
The Superego (or
above I) incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned
from one's parents and others. It develops
around the age of 3 – 5 during the phallic stage of
psychosexual development. The superego's function is to control the id's
impulses, especially those which
society forbids, such as sex and aggression. It also has the function of
persuading the ego to turn to
moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection.The superego consists of two systems: The
conscience and the ideal self. The conscience can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt. For
example, if the ego gives in to the id's demands, the superego may make the person feel bad through guilt.The ideal
self (or ego-ideal) is an imaginary picture
of how you ought to be, and
represents career aspirations, how to treat other people, and how to behave as a member of society. Behaviour which falls short of the ideal
self may be punished by the superego
through guilt. The super-ego can also reward us through the ideal self when we behave ‘properly’ by making us feel
proud.
The superego and id are continual conflict, which the ego tries to resolve. A successful resolution of the conflict lead to a normal personality, while a failure of the conflict lead to abnormal personality.
They are used certain terms
in Psychoanalysis are:
·
Libido(the life instinct) is a term used by in psycho-analytic
theory to describe the energy created by the survival
and sexual instincts
but to Freud it represented all psychic energy
and not just sexual energy. To Freud, the libido (part of id) is the
driving force of all behaviour.
·
Thanatos(means death, a Greek word) is death instinct relates to the
impulse of destruction. The death
drive is the drive towards death and self-destruction. It is manifested through
acts of aggression, cruelty and
even of suicide.
· Cathexis: In psychoanalysis, cathexis is defined as the process of investment of mental or emotional energy in a person, object, or idea (the investment of libido in objects). An example would be Freud's enormous cathexis of interest around sexuality. Cathexes correspond to ideas, whereas affects are discharge products.
C. Theory of Psyco-sexual
Development
According to Freud, all human being moves through a series of psycho sexual stages, during which the libidinal energy is focused on different regions of the body (erogenous zone). Adult personality of an individual depends upon the extend of fixation taken place at different stages of psycho-sexual development. The different stages of psycho-sexual development are:
You can remember
the order of these stages by using the
mnemonic: “old (oral) age (anal)
pensioners (phallic) love (latent) grapes (genital).
In the first stage of personality development the libido
is centred in a baby's mouth. It gets much
satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the
libido, and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or
mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and
breastfeeding. Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral
fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all around us such as
smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage
in such oral behaviours, particularly
when under stress.
The libido now becomes focused on the anus and the child
derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are
a person in their own right and that their wishes
can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e. their
ego has developed). Freud believed
that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on when
and where the child can defecate. The
nature of this first conflict with
authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of
authority. The anal expulsive,
on the other hand, underwent
a liberal toilet-training regime during the anal stage. In
adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like giving things away. An anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized and rebellious.
During this period
pleasure is now becomes concentrated in the genitals
and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of
pleasure. The child becomes aware of
anatomical sex differences, which
sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry,
jealousy and fear which Freud
called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). This is resolved through
the process of identification, which involves the child adopting
the characteristics of the
same sex parent.
· Oedipus complex: The complex of emotions aroused in a young child, typically around the age of four, by an unconscious sexual desire for the parent of the opposite sex and wishes to exclude the parent of the same sex. It is a desire for sexual involvement with the parent of the opposite sex and a associated sense of rivalry with the parent of the same sex; a crucial stage in the normal developmental process. (The term was originally applied to boys). In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so. Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what he loves the most. During the phallic stage, what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.
·
Electra complex: The Electra complex is a
psychoanalytic term used to describe a girl's
sense of competition with her mother for the affections of her father.
It is the unresolved, unconscious libidinous of a daughter
for her father. For girls, the Oedipus
or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the father, but
realizes that she does not have a
penis. This leads to the development of
penis envy and the wish to be a boy. The girl resolves
this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her
'castrated state' and this creates
great tension. The girl then
represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the
mother to take on the female
gender role.
Latency Stage (5 or 6 to puberty)
No further psychosexual development takes place during
this stage (latent means hidden). The
libido is sleeping. Freud thought
that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage and
sexual energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies and friendships.
Much of the child's energy is
channelled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge and play becomes
largely confined to other
children of the same gender.
This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of
personality development and begins in
puberty. It is a time of adolescent
sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one
relationship with another person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to
heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage.
For Freud, the proper outlet of the
sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual
perversions may develop. For example, fixation
at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from
kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
Progression to the genital stage is possible only if
serious fixation has not occurred at the earlier stage of
development.
2. Lewin’s concept on personality:
Kurt Lewin was born in Germany in 1890. He was considered by some as
the father of modern social
psychology due to his act of breaking new ground in employing scientific
methods and experimentation in the study of social behaviour. He adapted and applied
the Gestalt perspective to personality theory and
social dynamics and called it "Field Theory." Field theory emphasized interpersonal conflict,
individual personalities and situational variables
and he proposed that behaviour is the result of the individual and
their environment. In viewing a person's social environment and its effect on their dynamic field, Lewin also found that a person's
psychological state influences their social field. Lewin emphasized the explanation of human behaviour in terms of the forces and
tensions that move us to action. Lewin
defines personality as a dynamic
totality of systems present in the individual.
According to him, the cognitive structure of a person determines his
personality. Each person exists within a field of vector forces called life space. He was one of the first psychologists to propose that the development of an individual
was the product of the interaction between inborn
predispositions (nature) and life experiences (nurture). The life
space is largely undifferentiated at birth,
but gradually gets differentiated in to two regions: an inner person (nature) and an outer environment (nurture). The
differentiation process continues throughout life. Depending upon one’s need, the inner person is motivated
differently and the individual’s activity moves from one region to another.
This process of movement is known as locomotion.
This procedure was presented by Lewin in the form of a mathematical equation known as Lewin’s Equation for behaviour, stating that behaviour (B) is the function (f) of the psychological person (P) interacting within his environment (E). This may be represented as: B=f(P,E).
In a life space, a person and his environment are in
simultaneous mutual interaction and are mutually
interdependent. The psychological environment (E) of the individual is
determined by certain condition existing in the psychological
self or person (P).
This is given by: E = f (P)
The psychological self (P) of the individual at a
particular time is determined by the forces operating in the
environment (E).
This is given by: P = f (E)
According to Lewin’s
field concept, behaviour is a change of the relative location (a cognitive
reorganisation of the life-space)
of a person and his environment. This indicates that
behaviour is a function of life space (Lsp)
This is given by: E = f (Lsp)
The environment as
demonstrated in the life space refers to the objective situation in which the person perceives and acts. The life
space environment (E) is completely subjective within each context as it depends not only on the
objective situation, but also on the characteristics of the person (P). It is necessary to consider all
aspects of a person's conscious and unconscious environment in order to
map out the person's life space.
Lewin applied
the term person in three different ways.
1. Properties/characteristics of the individual. (Needs, beliefs, values, abilities)
2. A way of representing essentially the same psychological facts of
"life space" itself.
3. "The behaving
self".
"The behaving
self may be seen as the individual's perception of his relations to the environment he perceives."
The development of the person inevitably affects the
life space. As a person undergoes changes
with their body or their image of themselves changes, this can cause instability in the region of life space. Additionally, instability in the
psychological environment or life space can lead to the instability of the person.
Any change within the life space subject to psychological laws. Accordingly,
an action of the person (P) or a change in the environment (E) resulting from said action
can be considered behaviour
(B). These behaviours can make large or small
influences on the totality of the
life space. Regardless, they must be taken into consideration. Field theory
holds that behaviour must be derived
from a totality of
coexisting facts.
Development also plays a major
role in life space behaviour. From the beginning of one's life behaviour is moulded in all
respects to his or her social situation. This of course brings up the sociological discussion of nature versus
nurture.
MODULE 2: IDENTIFYING THE SELF
2.1.
Meaning, concept and development of Self-concept, Self-esteem, self-confidence
and self-efficacy in learners
2.1.1.
Meaning, concept and development of Self-concept
In psychology, self-concept refers to an
individual's perception and understanding of themselves. It encompasses the
beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and evaluations we have about our own identity,
abilities, values, and roles in society. It is essentially the mental image we
hold of ourselves.
The development of self-concept begins
early in life and continues to evolve throughout an individual's lifespan.
There are several factors that influence the formation and development of
self-concept:
Self-awareness: Self-concept starts with a
basic sense of self-awareness, which emerges in infancy. As children grow
older, they become more aware of their own physical and psychological
attributes.
1.
Social interactions: Interactions with others, such as family
members, peers, and social groups, play a significant role in shaping
self-concept. Through these interactions, individuals receive feedback,
evaluations, and comparisons that contribute to their self-perception.
2 Reflected appraisals: Reflected appraisals refer to the way
people think others perceive them. As individuals receive feedback and
evaluations from others, they internalize these judgments and incorporate them
into their self-concept.
3.
Social comparison: People often evaluate themselves by
comparing themselves to others. Social comparison can have both positive and
negative effects on self-concept. Comparing favorably to others can enhance
self-esteem, while unfavorable comparisons can lead to negative
self-perceptions.
4.
Personal attributes and achievements: Personal attributes,
such as physical appearance, intelligence, talents, and skills, influence
self-concept. Achievements and successes in various domains also contribute to
one's self-perception.
5.
Culture and society: Cultural and societal factors shape
self-concept. Cultural norms, values, and expectations influence how
individuals define themselves and what aspects of their identity they
prioritize.
6.
Cognitive processes: Cognitive processes, such as
self-reflection and introspection, play a role in the development of
self-concept. These processes involve individuals' thoughts and interpretations
of their own experiences, which contribute to their self-perceptions.
It's important to note that self-concept
is not a fixed or static construct. It can change over time based on new
experiences, feedback, and personal growth. Additionally, self-concept can vary
across different domains of life (e.g., academic, social, physical), and
individuals may hold multiple self-concepts depending on the context.
Understanding and developing a healthy self-concept is crucial for psychological well-being. It can impact self-esteem, self-confidence, self-efficacy, and overall life satisfaction. Therapeutic interventions and self-reflection techniques are often utilized in psychology to help individuals explore and develop a positive and accurate self-concept.
2.1.2.
Meaning, concept and development of Self-esteem in learners
Self-esteem refers
to an individual's overall evaluation and perception of their own worth, value,
and competence. It is closely related to self-concept, but while self-concept
represents the broader understanding of oneself, self-esteem specifically
focuses on the emotional and evaluative aspect of self-perception.
In the context of learners, self-esteem
plays a significant role in academic achievement, motivation, and psychological
well-being. Here are the key aspects of the meaning, concept, and development
of self-esteem in learners:
1.
Meaning: Self-esteem in learners refers to how students
perceive and feel about their abilities, achievements, and overall academic
competence. It involves their beliefs about their intelligence, skills,
potential for success, and the value they place on themselves as learners.
2.
Concept: Self-esteem in learners can be categorized into two
main dimensions:
Academic self-esteem:
This dimension focuses specifically on how students evaluate their academic
abilities and performance. It includes beliefs about their intelligence,
academic skills, and competence in various subjects.
Global self-esteem:
This dimension reflects the overall sense of self-worth and value that learners
have beyond their academic performance. It encompasses how students perceive
themselves in relation to their peers, family, social groups, and other aspects
of their lives.
3.
Development: Self-esteem in learners can be
influenced by various factors and experiences throughout their educational
journey. Some key factors that contribute to the development of self-esteem in
learners include:
·
Achievement and success: Positive
experiences of academic success, meeting goals, and receiving recognition can
boost self-esteem. Accomplishments, such as good grades, mastering challenging
tasks, and receiving praise, contribute to a sense of competence and
confidence.
·
Failure and setbacks: Experiencing failure
or setbacks can have a negative impact on self-esteem. It is important for learners
to develop resilience and learn from failures, viewing them as opportunities
for growth rather than personal inadequacies.
·
Social interactions and feedback:
Interactions with teachers, peers, and parents can greatly influence
self-esteem. Supportive, encouraging, and constructive feedback can enhance
self-esteem, while criticism, comparison, and negative social interactions can
lower it.
·
Perceived competence: Believing in one's
own abilities and having a sense of efficacy in learning tasks can positively
influence self-esteem. Providing learners with opportunities to experience
success, set achievable goals, and develop skills can enhance their perceived
competence and self-esteem.
·
Self-reflection and self-acceptance:
Encouraging learners to engage in self-reflection, identify their strengths,
and accept their weaknesses can contribute to healthy self-esteem. Developing a
realistic and balanced self-perception allows learners to appreciate their
abilities while acknowledging areas for improvement.
Promoting
healthy self-esteem in learners is crucial for their motivation, engagement,
and overall well-being. Educators and parents can support the development of
self-esteem by providing a nurturing and supportive environment, offering
constructive feedback, recognizing achievements, promoting a growth mindset,
and fostering a sense of belonging and inclusion in the
learning community.
Characteristics:
Confidence, Positive self-image,
Resilience, Motivation and persistence, Self-advocacy, openness to feedback, Self-acceptance
and positive relationship.
It's important to note that
self-esteem can fluctuate over time and in different situations. Additionally,
self-esteem is not a fixed trait and can be developed and nurtured through
various experiences, support systems, and personal growth.
2.1.3.
Meaning, concept and development of self-confidence in learners
Self-confidence in learners refers to a belief in one's own abilities, skills, and competence to accomplish tasks and succeed academically. It is the assurance and trust that learners have in themselves, their judgments, and their capacity to overcome challenges and achieve their goals. Here's an overview of the meaning, concept, and development of self-confidence in learners:
1.
Meaning: Self-confidence in learners refers to an internal
sense of certainty and belief in one's abilities and potential to perform well
academically. It involves having faith in one's knowledge, skills, and capacity
to tackle academic tasks and challenges.
2.
Concept: Self-confidence in learners comprises several key
elements:
·
Belief in ability:
Learners with self-confidence have a strong belief in their own capabilities.
They believe they have the skills, intelligence, and resources necessary to
succeed in their academic endeavors.
·
Positive self-perception:
Self-confident learners have a positive view of themselves and their academic
competence. They recognize their strengths and acknowledge areas for
improvement without undermining their overall worth as learners.
·
Self-efficacy:
Self-efficacy refers to the belief in one's ability to achieve specific goals
or tasks. Self-confident learners have a high level of self-efficacy and
believe they can effectively perform the necessary actions to accomplish their
academic objectives.
3.
Development: Self-confidence in learners can be
nurtured and developed through various means. Some factors that contribute to
the development of self-confidence in learners include:
·
Mastery experiences:
Success and accomplishments play a crucial role in building self-confidence.
When learners experience success in completing tasks, solving problems, or
achieving academic goals, it boosts their belief in their abilities and
reinforces their self-confidence.
·
Supportive environment:
A positive and supportive learning environment that encourages growth, provides
constructive feedback, and recognizes students' efforts can enhance
self-confidence. When learners feel valued, acknowledged, and supported by
teachers and peers, they are more likely to develop and maintain a sense of
confidence.
·
Modelling and encouragement:
Observing positive role models, such as successful peers or inspirational
figures, can inspire and motivate learners to develop self-confidence.
Encouragement from teachers, parents, and mentors can also contribute to
learners' belief in themselves and their capabilities.
·
Goal setting and planning:
Setting realistic goals and developing a clear plan of action can help learners
develop self-confidence. Breaking down larger tasks into smaller, manageable
steps allows learners to experience progress and success along the way,
reinforcing their belief in their abilities.
·
Constructive feedback and reflection:
Providing learners with constructive feedback that highlights their strengths
and offers guidance for improvement can positively impact their
self-confidence. Encouraging self-reflection and helping learners recognize
their achievements and areas for growth fosters a sense of self-assurance.
·
Encouraging risk-taking and
resilience: Encouraging learners to take calculated risks, step
out of their comfort zones, and embrace challenges helps them develop
resilience and strengthen their self-confidence. Learning from failures and
setbacks and persisting in the face of difficulties contributes to the
development of self-assurance.
Developing self-confidence in learners is crucial for their academic success, motivation, and overall well-being. Creating a supportive, nurturing, and empowering learning environment that promotes positive self-beliefs and provides opportunities for growth and achievement is essential in fostering self-confidence among learners.
2.1.4.
Meaning, concept and development of self-efficacy in learners
Self-efficacy in learners refers to
an individual's belief in their own capability to successfully accomplish
specific tasks, meet academic goals, and perform well in academic settings. It
is a belief in one's ability to effectively utilize their knowledge, skills,
and strategies to achieve desired outcomes. Here's an overview of the meaning,
concept, and development of self-efficacy in learners:
1.
Meaning: Self-efficacy in learners is about having confidence
in one's own ability to perform specific academic tasks or activities. It
involves a sense of control and belief in one's capacity to overcome
challenges, acquire new knowledge, and apply skills effectively.
2.
Concept: Self-efficacy in learners encompasses several key
elements:
·
Task-specific belief:
Self-efficacy is task-specific, meaning that learners may have different levels
of self-efficacy for different academic tasks or subjects. For example, a
student may feel highly efficacious in solving math problems but less confident
in writing essays.
·
Outcome expectations:
Self-efficacy is closely related to one's expectations about the outcomes of
their efforts. Learners with high self-efficacy believe that their efforts will
lead to successful outcomes, while those with low self-efficacy may doubt their
ability to achieve positive results.
·
Self-regulation:
Self-efficacious learners are more likely to engage in self-regulated learning.
They set challenging goals, monitor their progress, and employ effective
strategies to manage their learning process. They have confidence in their
ability to control and direct their own learning.
3.
Development: Self-efficacy in learners can be
developed and enhanced through various factors and experiences. Some factors
that contribute to the development of self-efficacy in learners include:
·
Mastery experiences:
Success and mastery of tasks are the most influential factors in developing
self-efficacy. When learners experience repeated successes in completing
academic tasks, their self-efficacy increases. Small, achievable goals and
gradual skill-building contribute to a sense of competence and efficacy.
·
Vicarious learning:
Observing others who are successful in similar tasks can enhance learners'
self-efficacy. When learners see peers or role models succeeding, it creates a
belief that they can achieve similar outcomes through their efforts.
·
Social persuasion:
Positive feedback, encouragement, and support from teachers, peers, and mentors
can boost learners' self-efficacy. Constructive feedback highlighting strengths
and progress, along with verbal persuasion about their capabilities, can
positively influence self-efficacy beliefs.
·
Emotional and physiological states:
Emotional states, such as experiencing positive emotions like excitement or
pride, can contribute to increased self-efficacy. Additionally, reducing
anxiety and managing stress can create a conducive environment for the
development of self-efficacy.
·
Previous experiences and feedback:
Past experiences, both successes, and failures, contribute to the development
of self-efficacy. Reflecting on past accomplishments and learning from setbacks
helps learners build confidence in their abilities to handle similar situations
in the future.
·
Modelling and guidance:
Providing learners with role models and mentors who demonstrate effective
strategies and provide guidance can enhance self-efficacy. Seeing others
successfully navigate challenges and receiving guidance on how to improve one's
skills can increase learners' belief in their own abilities.
Developing
self-efficacy in learners is important as it influences their motivation,
engagement, and persistence in academic tasks. Creating a supportive learning
environment that fosters mastery experiences, provides constructive feedback,
encourages goal setting, and offers opportunities for positive modelling and
guidance can promote the development of self-efficacy in learners.
Relationship
between self-concept, self-esteem self-confidence and self-efficacy in
learners.
In learners, self-concept, self-esteem, self-confidence, and self-efficacy are interconnected constructs that influence each other. Self-concept forms the foundation of one's overall perception and understanding of themselves, which can impact self-esteem. Self-esteem reflects one's emotional evaluation of their self-concept and plays a role in determining self-confidence. Self-confidence, in turn, is a belief in one's abilities and contributes to self-efficacy, which is a task-specific belief in one's capability to achieve academic goals. These constructs work together to shape learners' perceptions of themselves, their motivation, and their academic performance, highlighting the interdependency of self-concept, self-esteem, self-confidence, and self-efficacy in the learning process.
2.2.
Carl Roger’s self-theory or theory of self-actualising tendency
Carl Roger was an American
psychologist who propounded the self-theory in 1947 based on his client-centred
therapy. According to Rogers dynamics of personality is the power for
self-actualization (self-fulfilment or desire to become all that one is capable
of). He stressed the importance of an individual’s self for determining the
process of his growth, development and appropriate adjustment to his
environment.
Personality
structure
The self-theory holds that personality is
a function of the interaction between two systems - the organism and the
self. They are forces operating in the world of an individual’s subjective
experience called the phenomenal field. It refers to the personal and separate
reality of each individual.
a) The organism: It represents the
totality of one’s experience - both conscious and unconscious. It is the centre
of all experiences which are taking place within the individual at a particular
time.
b) The self: It refers to the
totality of ideas, feelings and attitudes the individual has about himself
(self-concept). It is the accepted conscious part of experience. The self has
got two facets - the real self and the ideal self.
The real self is the self as it really is as a result of one’s experiences, and
the ideal self is the self one would like to be.
Personality
Dynamics
Personality dynamics means the way in which people behave and react to each other in a particular situation.
According to Rogers, the organism
continually strives to develop and expand the self. The basic force motivating
the organism is self-actualization. The central agency regulating a person’s
behaviour is the self. For Rogers, the normal personality development depends
on the congruence (resemblance) among different components of personality -
organism, real self, ideal self and the external reality. An individual’s
personality development depends upon the union and harmony between the image of
his self and the organism (experience). The larger the gap between an
individual’s self-concept and reality, the poorer his psychological adjustment,
and as such he develops a deviant personality.
2.3.
Concept and significance of Life skills education
World Health Organisation (WHO) in
1993 defined life skills as, "the abilities for adaptive and positive
behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with demands and challenges of everyday life”.
UNICEF defines life skills as, "a behaviour change or behaviour
development approach designed to address a balance of three areas: knowledge,
attitude and skills."
Therefore,
life skills are a large group of psycho-social and interpersonal skills, which can
help people, to make informed decisions, communicate effectively and develop
coping and self- management skills that may help an individual to lead a
healthy and productive life. They
represent the psycho-social skills that determine valued behaviour and include
reflective skills such as problem-solving and critical thinking, to personal skills such
as self-awareness, and to interpersonal skills. Practicing life skills leads to
qualities such as self-esteem, sociability and tolerance, to action competencies
to take action and generate change, and to capabilities to have the freedom to
decide what to do and who to be. Life skills are thus distinctly different from
physical or perceptual motor skills, such as practical or health skills, as
well as from livelihood skills, such as crafts, money management and business
skills. Health and livelihood education however, can be designed to be
complementary to life skills education, and vice versa.
CATEGORIES OF LIFE SKILLS
Category 1: Skills of Knowing and Living with Oneself
·
Self-awareness
·
Self esteem
·
Coping with
emotions
·
Coping with
stress
Category 2: Skills of Knowing and Living with Others
·
Empathy
·
Effective
communication
·
Conflict
resolution and negotiation
·
Friendship formation
·
Assertiveness
·
Peer pressure resistance
Category 3: Skills of Effective Decision
Making
·
Critical
thinking
·
Creative
thinking
·
Problem
solving
·
Decision
making
Importance of Life Skill Education:
1.
Life skills help adolescents to transit successfully from childhood to adulthood by healthy
development of social and emotional skills.
2.
It helps in the development of social competence and problem solving
skills, which in turn
help adolescents to form their own identity.
3.
It helps to weigh pros and cons of the situation, hence,
act as a mediator to problem
behaviour.
4.
It promotes positive social, norms that an
impact the adolescent health services, schools and family.
5.
It helps adolescents to differentiate
between hearing and listening and thus, ensuring less development misconceptions
or miscommunications regarding issues such as drugs, alcoholism etc.
6.
It delays the onset
of the abuse of tobacco, alcohol etc.
7.
It promotes the development of positive self-esteem and teaches anger control.
MODULE 3 MENTAL
HEALTH & ADJUSTMENT
3.1. Mental health & mental hygiene
Mental health refers to our emotional,
psychological, and social well-being. It influences how we think, feel, and
behave, affecting our ability to cope with stress, make decisions, and form
relationships. Maintaining good mental health is essential for overall well-being
and productivity. Common mental health conditions include anxiety disorders,
depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and others. It's crucial to
prioritize mental health, seek support when needed, and reduce stigma
surrounding mental health challenges.
The World Health Organization defines health as “a state of complete
physical, mental and social
well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. According to WHO,
mental health includes "subjective well-being, perceived self-efficacy, autonomy,
competence, inter- generational dependence, and
self-actualization of one's intellectual and emotional potential, among others." The WHO further
states that the well-being of an individual is encompassed in the realization of their abilities, coping
with normal stresses of life, productive work and contribution to their community. Cultural differences,
subjective assessments, and competing professional theories all affect how "mental health"
is defined. A widely-accepted definition of health by mental health specialists is psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's definition: the capacity "to
work and to love".
Criteria for mentally healthy person:
1.
Adaptability and resilient
mind
2.
Socially adaptable
3.
Emotionally satisfied
4.
Desires are in harmony with socially approved goals
5.
Insight into his conduct
6.
Enthusiastic and reasonable
7.
Good habits
8.
Philosophy of life
Factors affecting
mental health
1. Self-esteem
This is the value we place on ourselves, our positive self-image and
sense of self-worth. People with high
self-esteem generally have a positive outlook and are satisfied with themselves most of the time.
2. Feeling loved
Children
who feel loved, trusted and accepted by their parents and others are far more
likely to have good self-esteem. They
are also more likely to feel comfortable, safe and secure, and are better
able to communicate and develop positive
relationships with others.
3. Confidence
Youth should be encouraged to discover their own unique qualities
and have the confidence to face challenges and take risks.
4. Family breakup or loss
Separation
or divorce or the loss of a parent or sibling is extremely painful. Finding
ways to cope and adjust to the
changes wrought by these events is critical for everyone. If children are having
difficulty coping, professional help is recommended.
5. Difficult behaviour
When people are unhappy, they either internalize their unhappiness
or act out.
6. Physical ill health
Diseases, injuries and other physical problems often contribute to
poor mental health and sometimes
mental illness. Some physical causes (such as birth trauma, brain injury or
drug abuse) can directly affect brain
chemistry and contribute to mental illness
7. Abuse
The
mental health of abused children is at great risk. Abused children are more
likely to experience mental disorders
or mental illness during childhood and into adulthood.
Mental Health and school:
Schools can play an important role in the mental health and
well-being of their students and staff. Obtaining the skills needed for academic
success can contribute to a better life quality in students. A positive school environment can promote good mental
health in students and staff; in turn,
good mental health of students and staff can promote academic performance in
students and reduce staff absenteeism. Bullying
and feelings of not being accepted by peers
and teachers contributes to poor mental health in
students. Important strategies for promoting mental health in schools
include:
o
social and emotional learning,
3.1.2. Mental hygiene
Mental
hygiene is the proactive practice of maintaining and promoting good mental
health and well-being. Similar to how we prioritize physical hygiene for our
bodies, mental hygiene involves adopting habits and strategies to nurture our
psychological state. It encompasses self-care activities that promote relaxation
and self-awareness, stress management techniques, emotional regulation skills,
and cultivating a positive mindset. Nurturing healthy relationships,
recognizing the connection between physical and mental health, setting
boundaries, and knowing when to seek professional support are also essential
aspects of mental hygiene. By practicing mental hygiene, individuals can build
resilience, reduce the risk of mental health issues, and foster overall
emotional well-being, leading to a more fulfilling life.
American
Psychiatric Association has defined mental hygiene as “a science which suggests measures for prevention of mental
illness and restoration of mental health by the cure of mental illness”.
Goals of mental hygiene:
1.
Realisation of potentialities: It provides an opportunity to
the individual to develop his potentialities to the maximum.
The subject matter of mental hygiene includes
entire behaviour problems.
2.
Happiness: It provides means and measures to develop positive
attitudes towards life in the present
context of developing socio-economic aspects of the country. It attempts to
make individuals healthy
and happy for efficient life.
3.
Harmonious existence: It aims at the harmonious development of physical, mental and spiritual
capacities of the individual so that he may adjust properly in his social environment.
4. An effective existence: It means that the individual is able to use his abilities effectively. He may be able to adjust effectively in the society.
3.2
Adjustment, maladjustment and Defense mechanisms
Adjustment,
maladjustment, and defense mechanisms are interconnected concepts in psychology
that play a significant role in how individuals cope with life's challenges and
stressors.3.2.1. Adjustment
Adjustment refers to the process by which individuals adapt to changes,
challenges, and demands in their environment. It involves finding a balance
between internal needs, emotions, and external realities, such as social,
occupational, and personal circumstances. Successful adjustment enables
individuals to cope effectively with stress, maintain emotional well-being, and
function optimally in their daily lives.
Good defines adjustment as the process of finding and adopting modes of
behaviour suitable to the environment or the changes in the environment.
Psychologists
have interpreted adjustment from two points of views, i.e., adjustment as an achievement, adjustment as a process. Adjustment
as an achievement means how efficiently an individual can perform his
duties in different circumstances. Adjustment as a process lays emphasis on the process by which an
individual adjusts to his external
environment. It is important, especially from teachers’ point of view.
Students' adjustment largely depends
on their interaction with the external environment in which they live. They
always try to adjust to it.
A healthy and well-adjusted person should possess/display some observable behavioral patterns.
These patterns are as follows:
· Maturity in thinking
· Emotional balance
· Warm and understanding towards
others
· Free from tension due to routine
events
· Independent in decision makin
3.2.2. Maladjustment:
‘Maladjustment’ is a process whereby an individual is unable to
satisfy his biological, psychological
or social needs successfully and establishes an imbalance between his personal
needs and expectation of the society
resulting in the disturbance of psycho-equilibrium.
Characteristics of a Maladjusted Person:
There are numerous reasons which create frustration, that lead to
maladjustment. Let us analyze the symptoms
one by one.
Withdrawn and timid: Frequent withdrawals from difficult situations may make individual timid
and weak in facing real life situations.
Shy and self-conscious: Shyness is usually associated with the self-consciousness, concern with the impression one gives to other
people, and concern with their negative evaluation. A shy individual has low self-esteem and tends
to anticipate adversities, thus often keeping silent and avoiding eye contact.
Fearful: Fear is a strong emotion involving perception of danger, unpleasant
agitation and often a desire to hide
from meeting students of higher classes, being alone in a room, and fear of dogs, strange noises, the dark, etc.
Anxious: Anxiety is a personality trait. It results from conflict, which is
an inevitable part of life. Anxiety
describes the individual's level of emotionality. We see many students who are
tense and worried (highly anxious)
and those who are cool (hardly anxious).
Delusions: Delusion is an irrational and obstinate belief that the individual
actively defends, e.g., a child
does not work hard for the final examination and thinks that it is the God only
who can get him through the
examination and he fails. This shows the delusion in him which makes him maladjusted.
Extremely aggressive: Sometimes
individuals fail to show the tendency
of dominating in a social situation and hurt themself instead, e.g., a child
beats her doll, kicks the dog, or other objects.
Tension: When a person does not feel a kind of inner freedom, the strain
which results from muscular
contradiction and through which muscles, tendons, etc., are stretched under a
threatening situation.
High aspirations: A person has high hopes and aspirations for his future life. When
the hopes are not achieved, he becomes unrealistic in
life.
Feeling of inferiority: If inferiority feelings become exaggerated by adverse conditions at
home, physical or mental disorders on inferiority complex
may develop which makes an
individual maladjusted.
Emotionally disturbed: If
the internal and external adjustment of a child is not achieved, he becomes emotional e.g., weeping,
quarrelling, nail biting, thumb sucking, etc. and becomes maladjusted.
Isolated: Maladjusted person suffer from a feeling of isolation. This feeling
does not allow them to mix and
interact with other members of class, school, family or society.
Sensitivity: Maladjusted persons are very sensitive. They get hurt easily e.g.,
on being teased by teachers in the
classroom or parents in the family, sarcastic remarks by peers, unwelcome advice by others,
etc.
Temper-tantrums: When there is a bad-tampered out-burst, this is known as a temper tantrum e.g., if a child does not get fair
treatment, sympathy, cooperation and freedom of action within reasonable
limits, he feels maladjusted.
Causes of Maladjustment:
We can classify
the causes of maladjusted behaviour
of children under five main categories.
They are as
follows:
1. Family
(a)
Social
(b)
Economic
(c)
Psychological
2. Personal
3. School
4. Teachers
5. Peer Group
1. Family: It is obvious that the family as an institution has various functions
to perform. By discharging their
duties, parents indirectly fulfil the needs of their children. There are
certain significant causes: social,
economic and psychological, which contribute immensely to maladjusted behaviour
in children.
(a)
Social causes: The social problem of one
generation is the psychological problem of the next generation. Children coming from homes that have been broken due
to death, divorce, desertion, separation, etc., are often maladjusted in their behaviour. Drunkard parents, strained
marital relationship of
spouses, quarrels and fights between spouses are also responsible for
developing frustration in children. Such children feel insecure and become maladjusted.
(b)
Economic causes: The occupational status of
parents, problems of unemployment, poverty and
low-economic status breed maladjustment among children. Under such
circumstances, parents are unable to
satisfy the needs of their children which eventually lead to frustration,
aggression and hostile behaviour in growing children.
(c)
Psychological causes: Psychological instability of parents
is directly responsible for maladjusted behaviour
of their off-spring. If parents are over-possessive, highly authoritative,
unrealistic in their expectations, incompatible, abusive
and prejudiced, this will have a deleterious
effect upon their children.
When the psychological needs are not met, children get frustrated
and develop problems like nail biting, day-dreaming, fear of dark, lack
of self-confidence, flickering of eyes,
etc. Those parents who threaten, nag,
punish and humiliate their children before others are directly responsible for their children's isolated and rejected
behavior.
2.
Personal causes:
It is observed that individuals who are physically, mentally and
visually handicapped react abnormally
to the situation. Even children with partial deficiency, such as defective eye
sight, poor hearing and impaired
speech may find it difficult to adjust under normal situations. When they cannot score well academically
compared to their peers, they
develop an inferiority complex. Finally, they isolate
themselves from others and indulge in day-dreaming.
3.
School-related causes:
Children spend roughly seven hours a day in the school. When growing
children do not find ways and means
to channelize their energy in a purposeful manner in the school, they exhibit
in maladjusted behaviour. The school authorities, including
teachers should organize
various curricular and co-curricular activities to suit the needs of the growing children.
4.
Teacher-related causes:
An imbalanced personality in the teacher has its impact on the behavior of the children. If the teacher is unfair, biased or not involved with the students,
it certainly affects the mental health of the
children in the school.
5.
Peer-group related
causes:
Another important factor that disturbs the psycho-equilibrium of
students is an unhealthy relationship
with their peer group. Normally, students ask earnestly for recognition from
their peer group during
later childhood and
adolescence.
However, popularity among the peer group depends on various factors, such as good looks, athletic abilities, social class, academic performance, and special talents. If the student lacks these qualities, he may fail to get status among his/her peer group and gets frustrated and maladjusted.
3.2.3. Defense mechanisms
Defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies that
individuals use to protect themselves from anxiety, emotional pain, and
threatening thoughts or feelings. These mechanisms operate automatically and
help individuals cope with internal conflicts or external stressors. While
defense mechanisms can provide temporary relief, relying on them excessively
can hinder personal growth and lead to maladaptive behaviors.
Sigmund Freud first used defense as a psychoanalytic term. His daughter, Anna Freud, expanded on his
theories in the 1930s, distinguishing some of the major defense mechanisms recognized today. Primary defense mechanisms
include repression and denial, which
serve to prevent unacceptable ideas or impulses from entering the conscience.
Secondary defense mechanisms -
generally appearing as an outgrowth of the primary defense mechanisms - include projection, reaction formation,
displacement, sublimation, and isolation. Some of the major defense
mechanisms described by psychoanalysts
are the following:
1.
Compensation
2.
Denial
3.
Displacement
4.
Identification
5.
Introjection
6.
Projection
7.
Rationalization
8.
Reaction Formation
9.
Regression
10. Repression
11. Suppression
12. Sublimation
1.
COMPENSATION
Compensation is the process of masking perceived negative self-concepts
by developing positive self-concepts
to make up for and to cover those perceived negative self-concepts. In which people overachieve in one area to compensate for failures in another. This
psychological strategy allows people
to disguise inadequacies, frustrations, stresses or urges by directing energy
toward excelling or achieving in other areas.
For example, individuals with poor family lives may direct
their energy into excelling above and beyond what is
required at work.
2.
DENIAL
Denial is a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud which involves
a refusal to accept reality, thus
blocking external events from awareness. Many people use denial in their
everyday lives to avoid dealing with
painful feelings or areas of their life they don’t wish to admit. By this, one
not accepts reality because it is too painful. It is “closing our eyes”
to our negative self- concepts about people, places, or things that we find too severe to admit or
deal with.
A student may refuse
to recognise their obvious lack of preparedness for an examination
3.
DISPLACEMENT
Displacement is a psychological defense
mechanism in which negative feelings
are transferred from the
original source of the emotion to a less threatening person or object. The negative emotions elicited toward the
source of the feelings are instead redirected toward a more powerless substitute. Displacement is the
shifting of actions from a desired target to a substitute target
when there is some reason
why the first target is not permitted or not available.
For eg: A boy is
afraid of horses. It turns
out to be a displaced fear of his father.
A woman, rejected by her boyfriend, goes out with another man 'on the rebound'.
The father comes home from work angry at his boss, so he verbally abuses
his wife and children.
4.
IDENTIFICATION
Identification as a defense mechanism is the identification with
causes, groups, heroes, leaders,
movie stars, organizations, religions, sports stars, or whatever you perceive
as being good self-concepts or self-images. It is a psychological defence mechanism in which a person unconsciously incorporates attributes and
characteristics of another person into his or her own personality and sense of self. Identification is a way of
bolstering one’s self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance
with an admired person, then taking on that person’s characteristics. It is a defence mechanism
in which an individual subconsciously adopts the personality traits of someone
that he or she admires.
For instance, a child who fears his father might imitate his father’s behaviours with the hope that it will appease the father and therefore make the father like him.
5.
INTROJECTION
Introjection, one of many defense mechanisms posited by
Sigmund Freud, occurs when a person internalizes the ideas or voices of other people.
This behaviour is commonly associated with the internalization of external authority, particularly that of parents. Introjection is the acceptance of the
standards of others to avoid being rated as negative self- concepts by their standards. Introjection
is the opposite of projection. Projection occurs when a person projects feelings or characteristics on to another
person. Introjection, which is common among children
and parents, occurs when a
person internalizes the
beliefs of other people.
Introjections involve attitudes, behaviours, emotions, and perceptions that are usually obtained from
influential or authoritative people
in one’s life.
An example of introjection might be a dad telling his son “boys
don’t cry”- this is an idea that a person might take in from their
environment and internalize into their way of thinking.
6.
PROJECTION
Projection is the attribution to others of your negative
self-concepts. This projection occurs when
you want to avoid facing negative self-concepts about your behaviors or
intentions, and you do so by seeing
them, in other people, instead. Projection is a form of defence in which
unwanted feelings are displaced on to
another person, where they then appear as a threat from the external world. In projection a person puts the
blame of his own failure upon the shoulders of others or upon the adverse factors in his environment.
A common form of projection occurs when an individual, threatened by his own
angry feelings, accuses
another of harbouring hostile
thoughts.
For example: An unfaithful husband suspects his wife of infidelity., An inefficient teacher blames the students for their low achievement
7.
RATIONALISATION 9 21 26
Rationalisation is an attempt to logically justify immoral, deviant,
or generally unacceptable behaviour.
Rationalizing an event may help individuals maintain self-respect or avoid
guilt over something they have done
wrong. In many cases, rationalization is not harmful, but continuous self- deception, when a person consistently makes excuses for destructive behaviour, can become dangerous.
Rationalization is sometimes referred to as the “sour grapes”
response when, an individual rationalise
that, he do not want something that he did not get because “It was lousy,
anyway.” Rationalization can also
take the opposite tack or what is sometimes referred to as the “sweet lemon” response. In this case, individual
justify an error in purchasing by admiring some of the insignificant good
points of the product.
8.
REACTION FORMATION
Reaction formation is the process of developing conscious positive
self-concepts to cover and hide
opposite, negative self-concepts. It is the making up for negative
self-concepts by showing off their reverse. In which a person goes beyond denial and behaves in the opposite way to which he
or she thinks or feels. Usually, a reaction formation is marked by exaggerated
behaviour, such as showiness and compulsiveness.
A typical example is someone with a speech
impediment going to school
to become a public announcer to have
themselves believed through
others that they are a good speaker.
A mother who bears an unwanted child, for example, may react to her
feelings of guilt for not wanting the
child by becoming extremely caring and overprotective to convince both the
child and herself that she is a good
mother.
9.
REGRESSION
According to Sigmund Freud, regression
is an unconscious defense mechanism,
which causes the temporary or long-term reversion
of the ego to an earlier stage of development. Regression is nothing but unconsciously reverting back to (in terms of thoughts,
feelings, behaviours, etc…) an
earlier stage of development. Individual return to thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
of an earlier developmental stage
to identify yourself as you used to back then.
For example, a ten-year-old is in the hospital to get his tonsils
removed and begins sucking his thumb like he did when he was a toddler.
10.
REPRESSION
Repression is a type of psychological
defence mechanism that involves
keeping certain thoughts, feelings, or urges out of
conscious awareness. This process involves pushing painful or disturbing thoughts into the unconscious
in order to remain unaware of them. The goal of this form of defence is to keep unacceptable desires
or thoughts out of the conscious mind in order to prevent or minimize feelings of anxiety.
According to Freud, slips of the tongue are an example of how
repressed thoughts and feelings can
make themselves known. Calling the romantic partner the name of someone you
work with might just be a simple
mistake - but Freud would suggest that it might be a sign that you have repressed
sexual desires for that
co-worker.
11.
SUPRESSION
Suppression occurs when a person consciously tries to force these
feelings out of awareness. Suppression
is purposely trying to forget or not think about painful or unwanted thoughts.
It is a useful psychological
mechanism; here we force the unwanted information out of our awareness. We consciously choose to not indulge in a
conscious thought, feeling or action even though we are aware of it. This permits us to focus on our affairs without
being distracted by every impulse that arises, and without
having to act on those impulses.
A person may suppress feelings of love or dislike towards a person,
behaving normally towards them as though they felt unemotional towards them.
12.
SUBLIMATION
Sublimation
is a defense mechanism that allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviours into a more
acceptable form. Sublimation is considered to be a more adaptive defense mechanism in that it can transform negative
anxiety into a more positive energy. Psychiatrist George Vaillant identified it as a
mature defense mechanism, which we can use
to adapt to arising anxieties. Freud
believed that artists’ creative energies were often a refocusing of erotic impulses or other anxieties,
through sublimation, onto their work. Athletes may also use sublimation to concentrate their energy on productive activities such as training.
For example, a person experiencing extreme anger might take up kick-boxing as a means of venting frustration
3.3
Eco psychology
The term "ecopsychology" was coined in the 1990s by
Theodore Roszak, an American historian, and psychotherapist. He introduced the
concept in his book "The Voice of the Earth," published in 1992.
Roszak's work laid the foundation for the field of ecopsychology, which
explores the interconnection between human psychology and the natural world. Ecopsychology
examines how the environment impacts human well-being and behavior and
emphasizes the importance of recognizing and nurturing our deep relationship
with nature to promote personal and environmental health. The term
"ecopsychology" has since become widely used to describe this
interdisciplinary field of study that combines psychology, ecology, and
environmental studies.
Eco-psychology or
environmental psychology, is an interdisciplinary field that explores the
relationship between human beings and the natural environment. It combines
principles from psychology, ecology, and environmental studies to understand
how the natural world influences human well-being, behavior, and mental health.
The central premise of
ecopsychology is that human beings are deeply interconnected with nature, and
the well-being of both individuals and the planet is interdependent. The field
emphasizes the importance of recognizing and fostering this connection as a
means to promote sustainable living and address environmental challenges.
Some key aspects of ecopsychology include:
1. Nature Connection: Ecopsychology
explores the psychological benefits of spending time in nature and the positive
impact of nature on human mental health and well-being. It highlights the role
of nature in reducing stress, improving mood, and enhancing overall
psychological health.
2. Environmental Awareness: Ecopsychology
aims to raise awareness of environmental issues and encourages individuals to
take actions to protect and preserve the natural world. It underscores the
emotional and psychological importance of environmental stewardship.
3. Ecological Self: The concept of the
ecological self suggests that individuals can develop a sense of
interconnectedness with nature, recognizing themselves as part of the larger
ecological system rather than separate from it.
4. Ecotherapy: As a practical application
of ecopsychology, ecotherapy involves therapeutic interventions that take place
in natural settings. It leverages the healing power of nature to address
psychological challenges and foster personal growth.
5. Sustainable Behavior:
Ecopsychology investigates how attitudes, beliefs, and emotional connections to
nature influence sustainable behaviors and environmental decision-making.
Principles of Eco-psychology
The fundamentals of eco-psychology are in the process of being developed. The following statements are offered not as definitive
principles, but rather as working hypotheses or premises of eco-psychology.
·
The Earth is a living system. Human beings are fundamentally
interconnected with the Earth and with
all life. Neither the Earth’s problems nor humanity’s problems can be resolved
without taking full account of this interconnection.
·
Eco-psychology seeks to heal the alienation between person
and planet, and establish a healthy relationship
between the two. A key element of this is recognizing that the needs of the
person are the same as the needs of
the planet. The rights of the person are the same as the rights of the planet.
·
Eco-psychology calls for a
new cosmology
that embraces not only scientific models and understandings, but also spiritual
teachings, ancient wisdom, and the non-Western knowledge of indigenous cultures.
·
Eco-psychology calls for a profound
revision of mental health and human consciousness.
·
The drive to live in harmony with the natural world and its
rhythms is primal innate. Suppression of that drive is just as disorienting and damaging as suppression of other human
needs.
·
The very notion of sanity
must be redefined to include our planetary home. Today’s psychology and psychotherapy “stop at the city
limits, as if the soul might be saved while the biosphere crumbles” (Roszak). A healthy mature human
being naturally develops an ethical responsibility for the Earth.
· Eco-psychology embraces the goals of gender equity (equality between women and men; masculine and feminine), racial equity (equality for non-white races), and “cultural justice” (honouring and learning from non-Western cultures and indigenous peoples of the world).
ECO THERAPY:
Ecotherapy, also known as
nature therapy or green therapy, is the applied practice of the emergent field of ecopsychology, which was
developed by Theodore Roszak. Ecotherapy is based on the idea that people are connected to and impacted by the
natural environment. Ecotherapy, in many cases, stems from the belief that
people are part of the web of life and that our psyches are not isolated or separate from our environment. Ecopsychology is informed
by systems theory and provides individuals with an opportunity
to explore their relationship with nature - an area that may be overlooked in many other types of
psychotherapy. While some professionals teach and practice ecopsychology exclusively, other mental
health practitioners incorporate aspects of ecotherapy into their existing practices.
Ecotherapy Activities and Techniques
Some of the more common ecotherapy activities are described
below:
·
Nature meditation: This meditation takes
place in a natural setting, such as a park, and is sometimes done as a group therapy.
·
Horticultural therapy: The
use of plants and garden-related activities can be used to promote
well-being. Activities may include digging soil, planting seedlings, weeding
garden beds, and trimming leaves.
·
Animal-assisted therapy: In animal-assisted therapy, one or
more animals is introduced into the
healing process. Some studies have demonstrated that petting or playing with a
dog, for example, reduces aggression and agitation in some
populations.
·
Physical exercise in a
natural environment: This can include activities such as walking, jogging,
cycling, or doing yoga in a park. These types of activities foster increased awareness of the natural world and are
sometimes recommended for reducing stress, anxiety, depression, and anger.
·
Involvement in conservation activities: The
act of restoring or conserving the natural environment can assist in creating a
sense of purpose and hopefulness.
3.4
Outdoor Education-Nurturing
through Nature-Role of nature in nurturing personality of learners
3.4.1. Outdoor education is an experiential learning approach that takes place in natural or
outdoor settings. It emphasizes hands-on, real-world experiences to facilitate
personal growth, skill development, and environmental awareness. Outdoor
education programs can be found in schools, camps, adventure programs, and
other organizations, providing participants with opportunities to learn and
engage with nature.
Key aspects of outdoor education include:
1. Experiential Learning: Outdoor
education emphasizes learning through direct experiences, allowing participants
to actively engage with the environment and gain practical skills.
2. Environmental Awareness: Participants
in outdoor education programs develop a deeper appreciation for nature and the
environment, fostering a sense of environmental stewardship and responsibility.
3. Personal Development: Outdoor
education promotes personal growth, building self-confidence, resilience,
problem-solving skills, and teamwork through various outdoor activities and
challenges.
4. Physical Health: Engaging in outdoor
activities promotes physical fitness and a healthy lifestyle, encouraging
participants to be active and enjoy the natural environment.
5. Social Skills: Outdoor education often
involves group activities and teamwork, fostering social skills, communication,
and cooperation among participants.
6. Connection to Nature: Outdoor
education allows individuals to connect with nature, which has proven
psychological benefits, including reducing stress and improving mental
well-being.
7. Adventure and Risk: Some
outdoor education programs incorporate controlled risk-taking and adventurous
activities to help individuals step out of their comfort zones and build
confidence.
Some typical aims of outdoor
education are to:
·
learn how to
overcome adversity
·
enhance personal and social development
·
develop a deeper relationship with nature.
·
to reduce
recidivism (the act of continuing to
perform crimes even after having been punished)
·
to enhance teamwork
·
to teach outdoor
survival skills
·
to promote spirituality
·
to understand natural
environments
·
to develop leadership skills
·
to improve problem solving skills
3.4.2. Nurturing through Nature
3.4.3. Role of nature in nurturing personality of learners
MODULE 4 - INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
4.1 Education of children
with special needs (CWSN)- Special
education and Integrated education
Any child requiring attention due to physical problems or suffering
physical or emotional distress could
be considered as children with special needs (CWSN). “Special needs” is a term
with many definitions, ranging
from mild learning
disabilities to severe cognitive disability (mental retardation),
terminal illnesses, food allergies or developmental delays. When a child needs
help, outside of the ordinary, they have different
needs that have to be met
and different goals to achieve.
In order to understand children with special needs we must know the different adjectives or terms by which they are often described. Impairment, Disability and Handicaps are terms which are frequently used interchangeably. However, there are conceptual differences among the terms. The difference has been clearly outlined in the definition of each of the terms by ‘WHO’ in the international classification of impairment, disability and Handicaps.
Children with special needs include cognitive disability, hearing and speech impairment, speech impairment, visual impairment, loco motor impairment, multiple impairments, learning disability, emotional and behavioural disorders etc.
Early identification and intervention for
young children with special needs often leads to better school adjustment and performance. The assessment will help determine
the child’s individual needs. Some children may have
difficulties learning at a particular time and may require short term assistance. However, many
special needs may have lifelong needs. The child’s needs may change, depending on the environment and
the coping strategies he or she develops. Many other factors can affect a child’s educational needs, and it is
important that the school team meet regularly
to identify and discuss these factors, and adjust child’s programming as
needed. Teachers in all the primary, upper primary and secondary schools
have a responsibility to identify children
with disabilities.
Special Education
The
term Special Education is most widely used in the last few decades and has come
to signify education of the children
who are disabled and who have specific educational needs. Special education exists primarily because certain
students are not capable of receiving the same level of education if taught in the same manner and with the same techniques as the larger school population. Special education students
often have different needs, learn in different ways, and interact socially in different fashions than other
students.
Special Education as a separate
system of education
for disabled children
outside the mainstream education evolved way back in
the 1880s in India. It was based on the assumption that children with disability had some special needs that could not
be met in mainstream schools and therefore,
they need to study in a separate school with other children having similar
needs. The special schools are generally organized
according to different disability categories.
Special
Education is “specially” designed instruction or education to meet the unique
needs and abilities of exceptional or
challenged students. Such education is carried out in Special Schools which have special
settings, special facilities and special teachers.
Special Education is quite new
and of recent origin. Historically, persons with disabilities were
very often confined to hospitals, asylums,
or other institutions and these places provided hardly any education.
However, for last few decades the persons with disabilities were given education in special school. At the same time the students without such disabilities were educated in the regular schools. This gave rise to a dual system of education—one for persons with disabilities and another one for the students without such disabilities. In spite of the benefits of inclusive education, if a child with disability is not getting the required resource support in the mainstream school and is not developing up to her/his potential a special school remains a viable option.
Integrated education
The
concept of integration has its roots in the civil rights/racial unification
legislation of the 1960s in the USA.
Hence integration is primarily thought to be a legal term. The main idea was to achieve
social and academic interactions
between students of all kinds.
The
term integration has been in vogue for some time and it meant integrating the
disabled into education and society.
The moving spirit behind the idea of Integration was the motto “Moving them into school/society normally as
much as possible” Integration was sought to be achieved through bringing the disabled into the mainstream of education.
This was spoken of as Physical Integration, Social Integration and Pedagogical (Learning-teaching) Integration or Educational Integration. The idea
of integration was to bring about the education of the
disabled through Mainstreaming or
Inclusion. Integrated education emphasises
placement of children with disability in mainstream school.
In
integrated education, the child is seen as a problem and not the system. The
student is considered to be different
from others and if she/he cannot learn it is her/his problem. Hence, integrated education is based on the
medical model of disability and views a child with disability with clinical blinders needing remedy.
Integrated education can be a stepping stone for inclusive education.
4.2
Definition, concept
and significance of Inclusive education
- Significance of inclusive education for the education of all children
in the context of right to education
Inclusive Education means all learners, young people with or without
disabilities being able to learn
together in ordinary preschool provisions, schools, and community educational
settings with appropriate network of support
services. Inclusive education
refers to an education system that accommodates all children regardless of
their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions. For the development of
social skills and better social interaction of the student’s inclusive
education is the need of
education system.
The concept of an Inclusive Education is clearly a shift from the traditional welfare and service-oriented practice of special/integrated education. Inclusive Education is a relatively new concept, and is now recognized throughout the world. Inclusive Education in essence stands for equality, and accepts every child with his or her own unique capabilities. This notion is now being accepted by all the international, national and local educational programmes. Inclusion therefore entails the educational system making it open and welcoming to all. As far as the inclusion of disabled children is concerned, there is a shift in outlook and the services from `care of the disabled child' to ‘education and personal development’ of the child. According to UNESCO the concept of Inclusive Education is that, “… it involves the admission of children with special educational needs in ‘ordinary’ or ‘regular’ schools and may be described as ‘pedagogic integration’. This may be mandatory under legislation, or it may take the form of statements of policy which aim to encourage such integration”.
Inclusive education is all about effective learning by all children
including children with disability.
It is based on the social model of disability and considers that if the child
is not learning then the system needs
to be blamed. Inclusive education emphasises quality of education and not mere placement
in education.
Projects of education of children with disabilities in India
There are some projects for the education of children with disabilities
in India:
1. Project for Integrated Education
Development (PIED)
2. Integrated Education
for the Disabled
Children (IEDC)
3. District Primary
Education Project (DPEP)
4. District Rehabilitation Centre and National
Programme for Rehabilitation for Persons with Disability (NPRPD)
5. UN Support to primary
education: Community School
Programme.
6. Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA) (Movement to Educate All).
7. Inclusive Education of the Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS)
Significance of inclusive education for the education of all children in the context of right to education
Article 41 in the Directive Principles of State Policy did mention
persons with disabilities and
required that “the State shall within the limits of its economic development
make effective provisions for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment,
old age, sickness, disablement and in other cases of undesired want”. Article
45 stated that “free and compulsory
education should be provided for all children until they completed the age of 14” The logical conclusion by
linking these two articles would suggest that “ALL” also included “children with disabilities”. However, the constitution
did not explicitly and clearly say so. The
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act or Right to Education
Act (RTE) 2009 provides for the
modalities of the provision of free and compulsory education for children between 6 and 14 in India under Article
21A of the Indian Constitution. The RTE Act makes education a fundamental right of every child between the ages of
6 and 14 and specifies minimum requirements
in government schools. The most outstanding aspect of this latest law is that
under the RTE Act 2009 the Right to
Education of persons with disabilities until 18 years of age has also been made a fundamental right.
‘Inclusive Education’ is today “acknowledged as the most appropriate
modality for states to guarantee
universality and non-discrimination in the right to education”. These values
that are central to enjoyment of the
right to education can be realized only as systems become more and more inclusive. An inclusive education
implies transforming the school system and ensuring interpersonal interactions based upon core values which allow for the full
learning potential of every person
to emerge. It also implies
• Effective participation,
• individualized instruction and
• Inclusive pedagogies
The
creation of inclusive education systems is fundamental to achieving better
quality in education and realizing the human rights
of all children. Inclusive education
can raise the quality bar across education systems, by using strategies that cater for naturally diverse learning styles of
all students, whilst accommodating the specific learning needs of
some students. They also serve to target
and include other marginalized groups of children, helping to ensure inclusion
for all.” So some key values of
inclusive education are equality, participation, non-discrimination,
celebrating diversity and sharing good practices.
4.3
Issues and problems in Inclusive education
Education
of children with special needs has come a long way; from special education to Integrated education and from integrated
education to inclusive education (access to the main stream) environment in which they can learn by participating in
small groups. However, a wide gap in policy and practice exists in the
country with respect to inclusive education. There are a number of barriers that hinder proper practice of
inclusive education in our country. Based on the literature and personal experiences, the authors
believe these barriers to include the following: Inclusive education
is a binding and priority for government of India.
1. The inclusive school buildings are not fit for children
enrolment
Ramps
for wheelchairs must be both, outside and inside a building, but most of them
can be only seen on the schools’
first floors. Buildings are not designed for children with musculoskeletal (locomotor) system diseases. Nothing has
been envisaged for a child with musculoskeletal system problems, who has a lesson on the third floor. Some children
refuse to go to school exactly due to such
problems. Nowadays, the inclusive schools are mainly attended by children with
less serious health problems.
2. The inclusive school
special classes are not adapted, not provided with necessary equipment However,
teachers believe that classes, where teacher-specialists work with children
with
special educational needs, should be light and bright;
desks must be comfortable; special working tools
are required so as to make, through games and pictures, the training process
more accessible and pleasant.
3. Inclusive schools
are lacking professional specialists
A
team of different specialists should work with children with special
educational needs. A general
education teacher, a special education teacher, a psychologist and a speech
therapist, should work with such
children irrespective of their number and peculiarities. In fact, it is hard to
recruit such a comprehensive team.
4. Drawing up a
curriculum
Curriculum should be drawn up individually for each student,
jointly by teachers
and parents. However, many
parents do not even know about the possibility to jointly draw up a curriculum, and some teachers do
not pay much attention to developing individual
curriculum.
5. Children with special educational needs are seen as unhealthy and unfit
Some
teachers still believe that children
with special educational needs are
brought to school ‘just to take a child out, so that he/she can communicate.
6. Lack of advanced training courses for teachers
Apart
from specific knowledge about inclusive education, teachers should also develop skills in their major. When working with
children with special educational needs, the questions are often raised,
that teachers have no answer to.
7. Inclusive education should start from pre-school institutions
Children
are locked up home until the age of 6 and then are taken to school. They are experiencing certain psychological
problems, stress; the integration process is quite difficult for them.
8. Schools (alike the major
part of the society) still have a biased, discriminatory, stereotypical attitude
towards children with special
educational needs.
Perhaps most importantly, inclusive classrooms encourage
open and frank dialogue about differences as well as a respect for
those with different abilities, cultural backgrounds, and needs. Despite the benefits, there still are many barriers
to the implementation of inclusive
education.
A UNESCO article, “Inclusive Education,” outlined
many of them, including:
Attitudes: Societal norms often are the biggest
barrier to inclusion. Old attitudes die hard, and many still resist the accommodation of students with
disabilities and learning issues, as well as those from minority cultures. Prejudices against those with
differences can lead to discrimination, which
inhibits the educational process. The challenges of inclusive education might
be blamed on the students’
challenges instead of the shortcomings of the educational system.
Physical Barriers: In some districts, students with physical
disabilities are expected to attend schools
that are inaccessible to them. In economically-deprived school systems,
especially those in rural areas,
dilapidated and poorly-cared-for buildings can restrict accessibility. Some of these facilities are not safe or healthy for any students. Many
schools don’t have the facilities
to properly accommodate students with special needs, and local governments lack either the funds or the resolve to
provide financial help. Environmental barriers can include doors, passageways, stairs and ramps, and recreational
areas. These can create a barrier for some students
to simply enter the school building or classroom.
Curriculum: A rigid curriculum that does not allow for experimentation or the
use of different teaching methods can
be an enormous barrier to inclusion. Study plans that don’t recognize different styles of learning hinder the
school experience for all students, even those not traditionally recognized
as having physical or mental
challenges.
Teachers: Teachers who are not trained or who are unwilling or unenthusiastic
about working with differently-abled
students are a drawback to successful inclusion. Training often falls short of real effectiveness, and instructors
already straining under large workloads may resent the added duties of coming
up with different approaches for the same lessons.
Language and
communication: Many students are expected to learn while
being taught in a language that is
new and, in some cases, unfamiliar to them. This is obviously a significant barrier
to successful learning.
Too often, these students face discrimination and low expectations.
Socio-economic factors:
Areas that are traditionally poor and those with higher-than-average unemployment rates tend to have schools that reflect that environment, such as run-down
facilities, students who are unable to afford basic necessities and other barriers
to the learning process. Violence, poor health services,
and other social
factors make create
barriers even for traditional learners, and these challenges make
inclusion all but impossible. Funding:
Adequate funding is a necessity
for inclusion and yet it is rare. Schools often
lack adequate facilities, qualified and properly-trained teachers and other
staff members, educational materials and general
support. Sadly, the lack of resources is pervasive
throughout many educational systems.
Organization of the
Education System: Centralized education systems are
rarely conducive to positive change and initiative. Decisions come from the school system’s high-level authorities whose initiatives focus on employee
compliance more than quality learning.
The top levels of the organization may have little or no idea about the
realities teachers face on a daily basis.
Policies as Barriers: Many policymakers don’t understand or believe in inclusive
education, and these leaders can
stonewall efforts to make school policies more inclusive. This can exclude whole groups of learners from the
mainstream educational system, thereby preventing them from enjoying the same opportunities for education and
employment afforded to traditional students.
Overcoming
the many barriers to inclusive education will require additional funding, but even more importantly, it requires the
change of old and outdated attitudes. Studies support what many classroom teachers know by
experience: that the benefits inclusion provides to all students easily justifies the effort.
4.4
Teacher preparation for
Inclusive education – developing attitudes and competencies for inclusion.
Extending access to education is part of a worldwide agenda. The
Education for All (EFA) initiative
from the United Nations is an essential element of the Millennium Development
Goals. Positive teacher attitudes are
essential for success when children with special educational needs (SEN) are placed into mainstream classrooms. Inclusive education
has been internationally recognized as a philosophy for attaining equity, justice and
quality education for all children, especially
those who have been traditionally excluded from mainstream education for
reasons of disability, ethnicity, gender or other
characteristics.
The teachers have to play a very crucial role in the implementation
of the educational policies. This
means that inclusion of children with disabilities in the main stream is
possible only if the teachers are
provided with skill training to address to the learning needs of special
children in a regular class. While inclusive education has been implemented successfully in many countries, other countries are still in the process of achieving
this goal. Disabilities, provides background
and a more general introduction to inclusive education.
Teachers must redefine
their roles to enable rather disabled students. Teacher educators share responsibility
for giving future teachers a lens through
which to view every
learner as ordinary and essential. As teachers are regarded highly as the
key to change in education, their feelings
of frustration and inadequacy are potential barriers to inclusive education.
The teachers are not well equipped with the basic knowledge of various disabilities, their diagnosis, management and rehabilitation. They need programmes for their skills development to manage
classroom to meet the needs of
special children. The exposure should be given not only to teachers but also to
the head of schools to various aids
and appliances, equipments and infrastructure needed to cope with basic needs
of special children.
Teachers in inclusive classrooms must incorporate a variety of
teaching methods in order to best reach students of varying learning abilities. This has benefits even for those students who would be placed in
a traditional classroom, as this increases their engagement in the learning process.
Even gifted and accelerated learners
benefit from an environment that stresses responsiveness from all students.
Some of the obstacles related
to inclusive education are:
• Lack of Teacher preparation Institution
• Lack of Competent Teacher
Educator
• Lack of Infrastructure and Resources
• Lack of Proper Curriculum with special reference
to Inclusive education
during teacher preparation.
• Lack of proper strategies
to improve practical
skill and competency development on the part of student
teachers.
• Lack of time for preparing teachers
for inclusion in general classes.
• Lack of continuous workshop,
seminar, projects, and internship for special
children education.
• Lack of adequate pedagogy and strategy
to educate children with special need.
Teacher
competency is the ability to plan, control and facilitate interaction in the
classroom that is appropriate to the
activity and which takes into account the different needs and abilities of learners.
It enables the teacher to manage the energy levels,
ensure appropriate learners
participation and create pairs and
groups that have a positive impact on learning. It helps to motivate learners and ensures that
different styles of learning are catered for and different needs are met.
The general education teachers and special education teachers need
to have the following competences.
• Ability to solve problem,
to be able to informally assess the skills a student needs rather than relying solely
on standardized curriculum.
• Ability to take advantage
of children’s individual interests and use their internal
motivation for developing needed skills.
• Ability to set high but
alternative expectations that are suitable for the students; this means developing alternative assessments.
• Ability to make
appropriate expectations for each student, regardless of the student’s capabilities. If teachers can do this, it
allows all students to be included in a class and school.
• Ability to determine how
to modify assignments for students; how to design classroom activities with so many levels that all
students have a part. This teaching skill can apply not just at the elementary or secondary level, but at
the college level as well. It will mean more activity-based teaching
rather than seat-based teaching.
• Ability to learn how to
value all kinds of skills that students bring to class, not just the academic skills. In doing this, teachers
will make it explicit that in their classrooms they value all skills,
even if that is not a clear value of a
whole school.
• Ability to provide daily
success for all students. Teachers have to work to counteract the message
all students get when certain
students are continually taken
out of class for special
work.
• A realization that every
child in the class is their responsibility. Teachers need to find out how to work with each child rather than
assuming someone else will tell them how to educate a child.
• Knowing a variety of instructional strategies and how to use them
effectively. This includes the ability to adapt materials and rewrite objectives for a child’s
needs.
• Working as a team with parents and special education teachers
to learn what skills a child needs
and to provide the best teaching approach.
• Viewing each child in the class as an opportunity to become a better teacher
rather than a problem to be
coped with. • Flexibility and a high tolerance for ambiguity.
MODULE
5
TEACHER AS GUIDE AND COUNSELLOR
5.1. Concept of G & C
Guidance and Counselling
is applicable to all aspects of human life i.e. physical, mental, vital,
emotional and spiritual and in all stages of development from infancy to old
age. The main objective is to help individual to utilize the basic potentialities
to the maximum for adequate adjustment in the environment.
Meaning of Guidance
The term ‘guidance’ is
derived from the word guide, which literally means ‘to direct’, ‘to point out’,
‘to show the path’. It invariably means to direct on a course, to, give
instruction and to manage. In its simplest sense, guidance means assistance or
direction. It is the process of assisting a person to direct his actions so as
to solve some problem. It is the process of helping people to make wise choices
in life. Oxford Dictionary defines guidance as advice or information aimed at
resolving a problem, difficulty etc.
Meaning of Counselling
The English word
‘counselling’ originated from the Latin root ‘consilium’ which means
advice or debate. In its simplest sense counselling means the professional
help given by an expert to a needy person to resolve his personal and
emotional problems. Oxford dictionary defines the word ‘counselling’ as ‘giving
of advice on personal, social, and psychological problems’.
Definitions
of Guidance
According to Skinner, guidance is a process of
helping young persons learns to adjust to self, to others, and to
circumstances.
As defined by UNESCO, guidance is a process,
developmental in nature, by which an individual is assisted to understand, accept
and use his abilities, aptitudes and interests and attitudinal patterns in
relation to his aspirations.
Definition of Counselling
For
Tolbert, “counselling is a personal face to face relationship between two
people wherein counsellor with his competence helps the individual to know and
understand himself’.
According
to Carl Rogers, Counselling is a series of direct contacts with the individual
which aim to offer him assistance in changing the attitudes and behaviour”.
Educational G & C
The Kothari Commission
observes: ‘guidance should be regarded as an integral part of education and not
as a special, psychological or social service which is peripheral to
educational purposes. Educational guidance is a process of rendering
help to the students in their proper educational development and adjustment. It
helps the students to take full advantage of all the facilities that the school
provides to achieve his highest goals.
Difference
between Guidance and Counselling
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Guidance |
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Counselling |
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Usually guidance is given to normal
individual |
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It is for abnormal |
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It can be personal or impersonal |
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It is always personal |
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It is a continuous life-long
process |
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It is terminated when the problem
solved |
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Guidance is broader & comprehensive |
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Counselling is in-depth & narrow |
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Guidance is more external, helps a person to |
Counselling
helps people to understand |
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understand alternative solutions available to |
themselves & is an inward analysis. |
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him & makes him understand his personality |
Alternative solutions are proposing to help |
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& choose the right solution. |
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understand the problem at hand. |
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Guidance |
is |
mainly |
preventive |
& |
Counselling is remedial as well as preventive |
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developmental |
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& developmental |
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Decision making is operable at an intellectual |
Counselling operates at an emotional level |
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level in guidance |
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Guidance is generally education & career |
Counselling is mostly offered for personal & |
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related & may also be for personal problems |
social issues. |
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5.2.
Types of Guidance
Based on the area of client's life it touches, guidance can be divided into Personal, Educational, and Vocational guidance. Further, based upon the method of approach, it can be divided into Individual and Group guidance.
5.2.I.
Personal Guidance
It is the assistance given to students to solve the personal or emotional problems and help them control their emotions and feelings. It aims at the social and emotional well-being of the pupils. Schools and college students face many problems other than educational and vocational problems. These problems are known as personal problems and the guidance given to solve these personal problems is known as personal guidance.
5.2.1.1
Need for personal guidance
Personal problems are mostly emotional in nature and hence
are difficult to handle. The complexity of the causes and that of the person
make personal guidance inevitable for balanced development of the personality
and optimal social productivity.
It
is required for personal adjustment
It
is essential for developing individual competence
It
is needed for avoiding interpersonal tensions and conflicts
It
is used for setting up a harmonious environment between family life and
vocational life of an individual.
It
helps in taking decisions with regard to personal problems
It brings peace, happiness and satisfaction in the life of
an individual
It helps the person to develop integrated and balanced personality
5.2.1.2
Process of Personal Guidance
The process of personal guidance involves the following steps:
1.
Collection of data: All essential information concerning
the individual such as his physical, intellectual, social and emotional
development, academic achievement, personality characteristics, interests and
aptitudes, family and school background etc. Are collected using appropriate
tools and techniques.
2.
Diagnosis of the problem: the problem is carefully
analysed in relation with the collected data and the causes are traced
out.
3.
Prognosis: Based on the diagnosis, forecast the outcome of the counselee.
Based on this, remedial measures are suggested.
4.
Rendering Guidance/Therapy: the client is helped to get
rid of his difficulty either by modifying his behaviour or bringing some
changes in his environment. Various therapies may be used.
5. Follow-up: Later check upon the counselee’s success or failure in solving his problem.
5.2.2
Educational Guidance
Educational Guidance may be defined as the guidance which
child or educand needs while learning in educational institutions or schools.
It stands to help them to sort out the problems they face there. Educational
guidance assists or helps the child to make curricular adjustments according to
his ability and capacity. It is a process of assisting the individual in making
wise choices in relation to his educational life. It is a process of aiding the
individual in planning his educational programme and in carrying it forward
successfully.
According to Brewer, educational guidance is a
conscious effort to assist in the intellectual growth of an individual.
5.2.2.1
Need of Education Guidance
1. Educational guidance is needed to
help young people to pursue the right type of education.
2. It is needed for learners to make
informed decisions about their education.
3. It is needed to facilitate the
smooth transition for children from home to school, from primary to secondary
school, from secondary to higher educational institutions, and to the world of
work.
4. It helps students to cope with
examination anxiety.
5. It helps students to develop
effective study habits.
6. It provides students with
meaningful educational experiences.
7. Educational guidance checks
wastage and stagnation in education.
8.
It is needed for each learner to make proper educational adjustment.
9. It helps pupils with specific
problems like lack of relationship between ability and achievement, deficiency
in school subjects, faulty study habits, defective methods of learning, and
poor motivation.
10. Educational guidance helps the
pupil choose educational course best suited to him.
11. It helps the pupil make
educational plans consistent with his abilities, interests and goals to select
appropriate curricula and course.
12. Educational guidance is needed
for the scholastic and co-scholastic development of the learner.
13. To make the learner informed
about various educational opportunities and aids available for his educational
growth and development.
14. Educational guidance is needed to
check wastage and stagnation in education:
15. It is needed to realize the aims and objectives of education.
5.2.2.2. Process of Educational
Guidance
The process of educational guidance involves three important phases: collection of information, rendering guidance, and follow-up.
5.2.2.3 Aims & objectives of
Educational Guidance
1. To assist the pupil to understand
his potentialities, strength and limitations.
2. To help the child make educational
plans consist with his abilities, interests and future needs.
3. To help the child in developing
good study habits.
4. To assist the child to discover
all that his school has to offer and plan a programme of studies accordingly.
5. To help the child to participate
in out-of-class activities in which he can develop potential leadership
qualities.
6. To enable the learner to appraise
his fitness for continued study in a college or other school or in a particular
vocation.
7. To enable the student to know in detail
about the subjects and courses offered by the educational institution.
8. To assist the student in making
satisfactory Progress in various school subjects.
9. To help the child to adjust with the
schools, its rules, regulations social life connected with it.
10. To assist students 1 in getting
information about further education.
11. To diagnose the learning
difficulties of students and help the? overcome the same.
5.2.3
Vocational Guidance
Vocational guidance is the process of assisting an
individual for his/her career development and vocational adjustment to utilise
his/her potentialities for his/her own benefit and for the benefit of the
society. It is defined as the process of assisting the individual to choose an
occupation, prepare for it, enter upon and progress in it.
Vocational guidance aims at assisting an individual in making a choice of
occupation in accordance with his innate endowments. Vocational guidance helps
in selecting a suitable vocation, vocational education prepares individuals
towards successful placement.
Need
(functions) for vocational Guidance
1.
To avoid wrong profession and
economic loss.
2.
To avoid wrong profession and
psychic loss.
3.
Select vocation in accordance with health
status.
4.
Achieve personal and social values.
5.
Maximum utilization of human
potentialities.
6. Better job satisfaction.
5.2.4 Individual and Group Guidance
Guidance can be imparted individually as well as in groups. Accordingly, guidance can be divided into Individual guidance and Group Guidance
5.2.4.1.
Individual Guidance
Guidance given for an individual according to his need is
termed as individual guidance. Individual guidance or counselling is a
professional help offered to an individual by the counsellor. It is an
interaction between two individuals-counsellor & counselee-within a
professional setting. The individual to whom help is given is one who has some
kind of educational, vocational or emotional (personal) problem. The counsellor
tries to understand and diagnose the problem. Afterwards the counselee tries to
help him understand himself, his problem and arrive at an objective solution of
his difficulties. This guidance is based upon comprehensive information
regarding the needs and characteristics of the individual being guided and is
given in such a manner as to strengthen the individual rather than weaken him.
Objectives
of Individual Guidance
1.
To understand one’s own problems clearly.
2. To make the client to accept his abilities
and weaknesses.
3.
To develop insight and understanding in relation to self and environment.
4.
To make the client confident enough to shoulder his responsibilities
5.
To decide a course of action based on his choices.
Merits
of Individual Guidance
1.
Individual guidance is ideal for personal guidance.
2.
It is based on comprehensive information about the individual. Hence the
problem is solved in the best possible way.
3.
The client develops the ability for self-direction and learns to tack! similar
issues in future. 4. Individual guidance helps to uproot the basic causes of
maladjustment and hence brings about more conducive adjustment of the
individual
5.
Compared to group guidance, cures in this method are simpler a more effective.
Demerits
of Individual Guidance
1,
It is time consuming and demands lot of effort on the part of the counsellor.
2.
Guidance often involves solving problems of big groups of individual
3.
This method is comparatively more expensive.
4.
It needs the service of professionally trained and specialist psychologists.
5. It is meant for individual cases and end with the diagnosis and treatment of individual case under consideration.
5.2.4.2
GROUP GUIDANCE
Group guidance is a group activity to assist each individual
in the group to solve his problems and to make his adjustments. It occurs in a
group setting in which one or more guidance workers encounter students as &
group. It involves guiding the individual in group situations.
According to Jones, group guidance is any group activity in
which the primary purpose is to assist each individual in the group to solve
his problems and make adjustments.
There are two types of group
guidance – (i) Orientational, and (ii) therapeutic. Orientational kind of group
guidance concentrates on orienting pupils to new environment or courses or new
programmes. Telling the pupils about admission procedures and requirements of
admission in various schools and colleges also constitute an activity of
orientation type of group guidance. Orientation is necessary whenever pupils
enter a new institution or a new environment. Therapeutic guidance is the
guidance provided as a treatment. It is the guidance given to heal the common
problem of the group.
Aims
or objective of Group Guidance
(1) To
assist in the identification of common problem.
(2) To
provide information useful in the solution of adjustment problem.
(3) To
provide opportunities for experiences that promote self-understanding.
(4) To
lay the foundation of individual counselling.
Advantages
of Group Guidance
It is both economical and efficient
It helps in having more contacts with students
It offers students the opportunity
to discuss common problems
It helps to improve student’s
attitude and behavior
It focuses on collective judgment of problems that are
common to the group
It helps in the development of wholesome and helpful
awareness of unrecognized
need and problems of students.
Techniques of Group Guidance
1. Group Discussion:
The group is divided into small groups of 10 to 15 participants and presented
with some common problem for discussion. The conclusion arrived at due to group
discussion should be used for improving the condition.
2. Orientation talk:
In this, an expert (facilitator) converse with the group, informing them
important matters, clarifying doubts, familiarizing and adjusting them to new
situations.
3. Career conference:
A career conference is a formal meeting of ‘people for discussion on
occupational matters. It is aimed to provide occupational information to
students or to their parents in group situation.
4. Role play:
Role playing is a method where real life situations are simulated by group
members. It provides students with an opportunity to act out as well as talk
out their problems.
5. Film shows and Presentations:
Educational and vocational information can be imparted to a large number of
individuals through movie pictures, film strips, photographs, tape recorders
and posters.
6. Career fair and Exhibition:
Career fair offers tremendous opportunities to help the students explore
various avenues opened to them. In a career fair, various stalls are put up by
different institutes offering different courses. Students get a chance to get
information about various courses at one place only. The institutions display
information about careers in tables or charts. Further they also use video
cassettes, slide shows, films, etc. showing the nature of work related to that
career. They distribute information booklets, pamphlets, xerox material free to
the visitor.
7. Plant tours: Visit to industrial and business establishment groups can be arranged as a part of group guidance programme.
5.3
Significance of Guidance bureau in schools
A guidance bureau in
schools is a department or office dedicated to providing support and assistance
to students in various aspects of their academic, personal, and social
development. It is often staffed with guidance counselors who offer guidance
and counseling services to help students with academic planning, career
exploration, emotional well-being, social skills, and personal issues. The main
goal of a guidance bureau is to help students thrive and succeed in their
educational journey while fostering their overall growth and well-being. The
significance are as follows:
1. Academic Support: Guidance counselors help students
with course selection, academic planning, and study skills, ensuring they are
on track to meet their educational goals and potential.
2. Career Exploration: The guidance bureau assists
students in exploring various career options, identifying their interests and
strengths, and making informed decisions about their future career paths.
3. Emotional and Social Well-being: Students may face personal and
social challenges during their school years. Guidance counselors provide a safe
space for them to discuss their concerns, offering emotional support and coping
strategies.
4. Personal Development: The guidance bureau fosters
personal growth and resilience in students, promoting self-awareness,
confidence, and problem-solving skills.
5. Conflict Resolution: Counselors help students resolve
conflicts with peers or teachers, creating a positive and harmonious school
environment.
6. College and University Applications: For students
planning to pursue higher education, the guidance bureau offers guidance on
college selection, application processes, and scholarship opportunities.
7. Special Needs Support: Students with special needs receive
tailored assistance from the guidance bureau to ensure they have equal access
to educational opportunities.
8. Parental Involvement: The guidance bureau often works
closely with parents, providing them with insights and strategies to support
their child's academic and emotional development.
The
School Guidance Committee/Bureau:
1. The
Principal or Headmaster
2. Counsellor
or Career Master or guidance teacher:
3. Staff
representative (One-Member):
4. The
School Medical Officer:
5. PTA
President- Member
6. Chairman
or Secretary of the Managing Committee: Member.
7. The
Physical Education Teacher (P.E.T.): Member.
8. A
Few experts in different fields available in the community.
Major
Activities of Guidance bureau
1.
Orientation: This activity helps students to be
familiar with the school, courses, activities, facilities, staff etc.
and adjust to the school environment and develop positive attitudes.
2.
Assessment: Psychological assessment is aimed at
identifying student potential and characteristics in order to promote
his / her self-understanding.
3.
Group Guidance: Group guidance activities are
organized to promote students physical, educational and personal-social
development and adjustment and provide career information class talks /career
talks, discussions, workshops, conferences, visits, displays / exhibitions role
play etc. are frequently used methods.
4.
Career Information: It includes collection, management
and dissemination of reliable and valid information on careers and
courses to groups and individual students.
5.
Counselling: Counselling focuses on student’s
growth and adjustment and promotes problem solving and decision making.
5.4. Types of Counselling (based on role of counsellor)
Based on the nature of the
counseling process and the role of the counsellor, the following are the three
types of counseling
1. Directive Counseling 2. Non-Directive Counseling 3. Eclectic Counseling
1.
Directive Counselling:
• Williamson is the chief exponent.
In this counselling the counsellor
plays an active role as it is regarded as a means of helping people how to
learn to solve their own problems. This type of counselling is otherwise known
as counsellor-centered counselling, because in this counselling the counsellor
does everything himself.
Features
of Directive Counselling:
1.
During the interview attention is focused upon a particular problem and
possibilities for its solution.
2. During the interview the counsellor
plays a more active role than the client or pupil.
3.
The pupil or client makes the decision, but the counsellor does all that he can
to get the counselee or client makes a decision in keeping with his diagnosis.
4. The counsellor tries to direct the thinking of the counselee or client by informing, explaining, interpreting and advising him.
Steps in Directive Counselling:
(i) Analysis: In this step data
is collected from a variety of sources for an adequate understanding of
the problem.
(ii) Synthesis: This step implies
organizing and summarising the data to find out the assets, liabilities,
adjustments and mal-adjustments of the pupil.
(iii) Diagnosis: Formulating
conclusions regarding the nature and causes of the problems expressed by
the pupils is the major concern of this step.
(iv) Prognosis: This step implies
predicting the future development of the problem of client or pupil.
(v) Counselling: This step indicates
taking steps by the counsellor with the pupil to bring about adjustment
in life.
(vi) Follow-up: This step implies
helping and determining the effectiveness of the counselling provided to
the pupil or client.
Role
of the counsellor in Directive Counselling:
The counsellor
plays the vital role in this counselling process. He is the pivot of the
process and the leader of the situation. The counsellor does most of the
talking. The focus is the problem and not the individual. The counselee in
fact, works under the counsellor and not with him. The counsellor tries to
direct the thinking of the counselee or client by informing, explaining,
interpreting and sometimes advising also.
The counsellor
collects all possible information about the pupils or counselees and analyses
them for an adequate understanding. He summarizes and organises the data so as
to understand the abilities and limitations, adjustment and mal-adjustment of
the pupils. He formulates conclusions about the nature and causes of his
problems. He predicts the future development of his problems. He prescribes
what the pupil should do to solve his problems and follows the consequences or
effects of his prescription. Directive counselling is also called the
prescriptive counselling because the counsellor prescribes the solutions or the
course of action for the pupils.
Merits
-time saving and economical -gives
happiness to the counselee as he gets a solution to his problem. -emphasis is
on the intellectual rather than the emotional aspect.
Demerits
-kills the initiative -makes him helpless -does not guide counselee to be efficient and confident -undemocratic -made dependent.
5.4.2. Non-Directive Counselling: (Chief exponent – Carl Rogers)
In this type of
counselling the counselee or client or pupil with the problem is the pivot of
the counselling process. He plays an active role and this type of counselling
is a growing process. In this counselling the goal is the independence and
integration of the client rather than the solution of the problem. In this
counselling process the counselee comes to the counsellor with a problem. The
counsellor establishes rapport with the counselee based on mutual trust,
acceptance and understanding.
The counselee provides all information about his problems. The counsellor assists him to analyze and synthesize, diagnose his difficulties, predict the future development of his problems, take a decision about the solution of his problems; and analyse the strengths and consequences of his solutions before taking a final decision. Since the counselee is given full freedom to talk about his problems and work out a solution, this technique is also called the “permissive” counselling.
Steps
in Non-Directive Counselling:
The
following steps are adopted in this counselling process:
1. The
pupil or individual comes for help as the counselee.
2.
The counsellor defines the situation
by indicating that he doesn’t have the answer but he is able to provide a place
and an atmosphere in which the client or pupil can think of the answers or
solutions to his problems.
3.
The counsellor is friendly,
interested and encourages free expression of feeling regarding the problem of
the individual.
4. The
counsellor tries to understand the feeling of the individual or client.
5. The
counsellor accepts and recognizes the positive as well as the negative
feelings.
6.
The period of release or free
expression is followed by a gradual development of insight.
7.
As the client recognizes and accepts
emotionally as well as intellectually his real attitudes and desires, he
perceives the decisions that he must make and the possible courses of action
open to him.
8. Positive
steps towards the solution of the problem situation begin to occur.
9.
A decreased need for help is felt
and the client is the one who decides to end the contract.
Merits
-freedom of the individual -relieves tensions due to
catharsis -moves toward acceptance of himself -confronts weaknesses without
feeling threatened
Demerits
-time consuming -wisdom and judgement of the client cannot be relied upon -all the problems cannot be sorted out through talking.
3.
Eclectic Counselling:
-Chief exponent –F. C.Thorne
Eclectic counselling is a
combination of directive and non-directive technique depending upon the
situational factors. This approach in counselling is best characterised by its
freedom to the counsellor to use whatever procedures or techniques seem to be
the most appropriate to any particular time for any particular client. This
counselling is one where one who is willing to utilize any procedures which
hold promise even though their theoretical bases differed markedly.
This counselling recognizes that
each theory may contain some truth and that so as long as a final decision
between theories can’t be made practical necessity justifiably takes precedence
over orthodoxy. The counsellor in this counselling may start with directive
technique but switches over to non-directive counselling if the situation
requires. He may also start with the non-directive technique and switches over
to directive techniques if the situation demands. So the counsellor in this
counselling makes use of directive and non-directive counselling and also of
any other type which may be considered useful for the purpose of modifying the
ideas and attitudes of the counselee. Hence it is possible for the counsellor
to alternate between directive and non-directive techniques depending upon the
requirements of the situation.
It can be said that directive and
non-directive counselling are at the opposite ends of the pole of guidance. It
is eclectic counselling that bridges the gap between the two and makes
adjustment between directive and non-directive techniques.
Features/Characteristics
of Eclectic Counselling:
1. Methods
of counselling may change from counselee to counselee/counselee or even with
the same client from time to time.
2. Flexibility
is the key note of this counselling.
3. Freedom
of choice and expression is open to both, the counsellor and the client.
4.
The client and the philosophical
framework are adjusted to serve the purposes of the relationship.
5. Experience
of mutual confidence and faith in the relationship are basic.
6. Feelings
of comfort are essential.
Disadvantages
of Eclectic Counseling
(1)
Some people are of the view that
eclectic counseling is vague, opportunistic and superficial.
(2)
Both directive and non-directive
counseling cannot be mixed together.
(3)
In this, the question arises how
much freedom should be given to the client? For this there is non-definite
rule.
(4)
The problem with an eclectic
orientation is that counselors often do more harm than good if they have little
or no understanding about what is helping the client.
5.5. Counselling skills and
qualities of a counsellor
Counseling skills refer to a set of techniques and abilities used by trained counselors to effectively support and assist individuals in dealing with their challenges, emotions, and personal growth. Some essential counseling skills include:
1. Active Listening:
Paying full attention to what the person is saying, showing empathy, and
providing a non-judgmental environment for them to express their thoughts and
feelings.
2. Empathy: Understanding
and sharing the feelings of the individual, demonstrating genuine concern and
compassion.
3. Rapport Building:
Establishing a trusting and positive relationship with the person to create a
safe space for open communication.
4. Reflective Listening:
Paraphrasing or summarizing the person's words to demonstrate understanding and
clarify their thoughts.
5. Open-Ended Questions:
Asking questions that encourage the person to express themselves more fully,
leading to deeper discussions.
6. Problem-Solving:
Helping individuals identify and explore potential solutions to their
challenges while supporting their decision-making process.
7. Non-Verbal Communication:
Being aware of body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice to
understand underlying emotions and respond appropriately.
8. Validation:
Acknowledging and validating the person's feelings and experiences, even if you
may not necessarily agree with them.
9. Boundary Setting:
Maintaining appropriate professional boundaries to ensure a healthy
counselor-client relationship.
10. Cultural Sensitivity: Being aware of and respecting cultural differences and backgrounds to provide inclusive and personalized counseling.
Qualities of a Counsellor
Empathy,
Active Listening, Non-Judgmental Attitude, Empowerment, Communication Skills,
Patience, Trustworthiness, Problem-Solving Skills, Emotional, Resilience,
Cultural Competence, Flexibility, Ethics and Professionalism, Self-Awareness,
Positive Outlook.
5.6. Counselling with Reference to
Gender Needs
‘Counselling with Reference to Gender Needs’ focus on providing counselling that acknowledges and addresses the unique emotional and psychological needs of individuals based on their gender identity. Counselling with reference to gender needs is a specialized approach that values and respects an individual's gender identity. By acknowledging the impact of gender on emotional well-being, this approach aims to create a supportive and inclusive environment where individuals can explore their gender-related concerns and work towards personal growth and self-acceptance. Here are explanations for the concept of counseling with reference to gender needs:
1. Gender-Inclusive Approach:
Counselling with reference to gender needs recognizes that gender identity is
an essential aspect of an individual's identity. It adopts an inclusive
approach that respects and validates diverse gender identities, including
non-binary, transgender, and gender-nonconforming individuals.
2. Understanding Gender Identity:
The counseling process involves understanding and exploring an individual's
gender identity and how it shapes their experiences, emotions, and
relationships. By acknowledging the significance of gender in a person's life,
counselors can provide more personalized and effective support.
3. Addressing Gender-Specific
Challenges: This approach acknowledges that
individuals may face unique challenges related to their gender identity, such
as gender-based discrimination, societal expectations, and self-acceptance
struggles. The counseling process aims to address these challenges and promote
resilience and well-being.
4. Challenging Gender Stereotypes:
Counselling with reference to gender needs challenges traditional gender
stereotypes and norms that can negatively impact individuals' mental health. It
encourages clients to embrace their authentic selves and redefine their gender
roles according to their preferences.
5. Fostering Gender Empathy:
Counselors strive to develop empathy and understanding for the gender-related
experiences of their clients. This empathy creates a safe and supportive
environment for individuals to express their feelings and concerns openly.
6. Providing Safe Spaces:
Creating safe and affirming spaces for clients is essential in gender-specific
counseling. It ensures that individuals feel comfortable discussing their
gender-related issues without fear of judgment or discrimination.
7. Intersectionality:
The counseling approach acknowledges that gender intersects with other aspects
of an individual's identity, such as race, ethnicity, sexuality, and
socioeconomic background. Understanding these intersections helps counselors
provide comprehensive and culturally sensitive support.
8. Affirming Identity Exploration:
Gender-sensitive counseling encourages clients to explore and express their
gender identity authentically. It supports individuals in their journey of
self-discovery and self-acceptance.
9. Advocacy and Support:
Gender-specific counseling may also involve advocating for gender equality and
challenging gender-based discrimination. Counselors can offer resources and
support to help clients navigate societal challenges related to gender.
10. Personalized Interventions: Each individual's gender needs may be different, so counseling interventions are tailored to address specific concerns and promote personal growth and well-being.
5.6.2. Peer Counselling
Peer
counselling refers to the practice of students providing support and guidance
to their peers who may be facing various challenges or seeking emotional
assistance. Here are explanations for the concept of peer counselling:
1. Student-to-Student Support:
Peer counselling involves students offering emotional support and understanding
to their fellow classmates. It acknowledges that students can relate to and
empathize with the challenges their peers may be experiencing.
2. Building Empathy and Trust:
Through peer counseling, students develop empathy and learn to actively listen
to their peers' concerns. This process helps build trust within the school
community and creates a safe space for students to share their feelings openly.
3. Informal and Approachable:
Peer counseling sessions often take place in informal settings, making it more
comfortable and approachable for students seeking help. The casual environment
can reduce the stigma associated with seeking assistance.
4. Promoting Positive Relationships:
Peer counseling fosters positive relationships among students, enhancing the
overall school atmosphere. It encourages a sense of camaraderie and mutual
support, contributing to a more inclusive and caring school community.
5. Addressing Relatable Issues:
Peers can relate to each other's experiences and challenges, making peer
counseling a valuable platform to address issues that are specific to students'
lives and age group.
6. Confidentiality and Safety:
Like professional counseling, confidentiality is crucial in peer counseling.
Students understand the importance of maintaining privacy, ensuring that those
seeking help feel safe and secure.
7. Enhancing Communication Skills:
Peer counseling allows students to develop essential communication and active
listening skills. As they practice being supportive listeners, they also
improve their ability to articulate their thoughts and feelings effectively.
8. Peer Training Programs:
To ensure the effectiveness of peer counselling, schools may implement training
programs for student counsellors. These programs equip students with the
necessary skills to provide emotional support responsibly and ethically.
9. Complementing Professional
Services: Peer counselling does not replace formal counseling by
trained professionals. Instead, it complements such services, extending the
support network available to students within the school environment.
10. Empowerment and Growth:
Both the student counsellor and the person seeking help benefit from peer
counseling. The counselor gains a sense of purpose and responsibility, while
the individual receiving support feels empowered and understood.
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