B.Ed EDU 201 Knowledge & Curriculum, Simple note

 

Module 1 – INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

1.1. Philosophy – Meaning and Branches

Meaning of Philosophy

Philosophy is as old as human life. There is no aspect of life, natural or supernatural, animate or inanimate which falls outside its domain. Everyone follows a philosophy, whether he is aware of it or not. Philosophy is search for a comprehensive view of nature, an attempt at universal explanation of the nature of things. It deals with everything in the world and all of knowledge. Philosophy is not a body of knowledge. It is a technique of thinking and an attempt to answer the ultimate questions of life.

Etymological Meaning

The term “philosophy” literally means the love of wisdom. It is derived from two Greek words ‘Philos’, “love” and ‘Sophia’, “wisdom”. This wisdom results from pursuing knowledge or truth. The philosophical quest for truth and wisdom is necessary to lead a fully human life.

Nature of Philosophy

·        Philosophy is an activity

·        Philosophy is a criticism

·        Philosophy is the systematic

·        Philosophy is integrative discipline

·        Philosophy is a technique of thinking

·        Philosophy is a way of life

·        Philosophy is ongoing

Branches of Philosophy

Philosophy deals with everything in the world an all of knowledge. It is primarily divided into three branches – Metaphysics, Epistemology and Axiology.

1. Metaphysics

The term literally means beyond physics. Metaphysics is the study of the nature of ultimate reality and speculations about the nature of existence. It asks the question like is reality spiritual or material? What is the origin of the universe? Is it inherently purposeful by its own design or do we create our own purpose? In their speculations into the nature of reality; philosophers have drawn varying conclusions.

Ø  Aristotle is regarded as the father of metaphysics

Ø  For Aristotle metaphysics as “a science which studies being ‘qua being’ and properties inherent in it in virtue of its own nature.”

Ø  It is the study of being.

Ø  It is divided into

1. Ontology- study of being

2. Cosmology- study of the universe

3. Cosmogony- study of the origin of universe

4. Philosophy of self- deals with the essence of man

5. Theology- Study of God

6. Eschatology- deals with death and life after death and final judgemennt

Metaphysics and Education

Ø  Metaphysics is related to all important problems in human life and so it cannot avoid education

Ø  It connects human life and education with the world outside

Ø  It helps to take ultimate decisions on aim, curriculum, methods of teaching and evaluation etc.

Ø  It is concerned with reality hence it is important in education because curriculum is based on reality

Ø  Spiritual education is included or excluded based on the metaphysical concept.

Ø  The purpose of education is to explain reality to the young, the metaphysics helps the teacher to give a proper insight to children

2. Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of Philosophy that studies the nature and scope of knowledge. The term “epistemology” is based on the Greek words “episteme” which means knowledge. Its Sanskrit equivalent is “Pramana”. It deals with the conditions and sources of knowledge. It is theory of knowledge. Epistemology considers such important questions as: How do we know what we know? Can we know the real? What is knowledge? What are the sources of knowledge? How can we know that our knowledge is real? What are the limits of our knowing? How can we distinguish between true and false knowledge? What is the relation between knower and the known? What is ignorance? Is it a form   of knowledge? The answers to these questions form the subject matter of epistemology. It is a critical examination of metaphysics.

Origin or Source of Knowledge

1. Intuition (Intuitionism)- Hocking, H. Bergson, Mystics

2. Reasoning (Rationalist) – Plato- the father of this school

3. Sense Experiences (Empiricism)- John Locke

4. Authority (Authoritarianism)- authority of the state, church, scriptures, tradition or the expert.

Importance of Epistemology in Education

Epistemology is closely related to methods of teaching and learning. For example,

1. an idealist may hold that knowing, or the cognitive process, is really the recall of ideas that are present latently in the mind.

2.Plato’s epistemology, or theory of knowledge, is based on the concept of reminiscence or recollection by which human beings recall all the truths that are latently and unconsciously present in their minds.

3.The appropriate educational method for Idealist would be the Socratic dialogue in which the teacher attempts to bring latent ideas to the student’s consciousness by asking leading questions.

4. Realists hold that knowledge originates in the sensations we have of objects in our environment.

5. A pragmatist, hold that, we create knowledge by interacting with our environment in problem-solving episodes.

6. Existentialists content that we create our own knowledge by choosing what we wish to believe and appropriating it as our own.

3. AXIOLOGY

Axiology deals with value. It is the science of value. It is derived from the two Greek word Anxious and logos which together means the theory of value. The subdivisions of axiology are ethics and aesthetics.

1. Ethics refers to the philosophical study of moral values and conduct. It studies nature of right and wrong and the distinction between good and evil. Ethics explores the nature of justice and of a just society, and also one’s obligation to one self, to others and to society.

2. Aesthetics is concerned with the study of values in the realm of beauty and  art. It also studies our thoughts, feelings and attitudes when we hear or read something beautiful- in nature or in art. In addition aesthetics investigates the experience of engaging in such activities as painting, dancing, acting and playing. Aesthetics is sometimes identified with the philosophy or art, the  process of artistic creation, and the nature of the aesthetic experiences.

Relationship between Axiology and Education

Ø  The aims and values of the society are reflected in aims and values of the educational system.

Ø  We cannot construct a system of education without the knowledge of axiology

Ø  Aim of education and methods of learning is related to axiology

Ø  The theory of education is influenced by value theory

Ø  Parents, teachers, and society reward or punish behaviour as it conforms to or deviates from their conceptions of correctness, goodness, or beauty.

Ø  Teacher should have thorough knowledge about values and possess values. To motivate the students’ teacher should develop the values from past experiences.

Ø  Teachers are always concerned how students should behave. For this purpose, they are concerned with imparting moral values and improving individual and social behavior.

Relation between Philosophy and Education

There is a mutual and close relationship between education and philosophy. Both philosophy and education are integrally related to each other. The following are a few viewpoints that establish the relationship between philosophy and education:

James S. Ross: “Philosophy and education are the two sides of the same coin; the former is the contemplative while the latter is the active side”

According to J. Adams “Education   is the dynamic side of philosophy”.

John Dewey: “Philosophy is the theory of education in its most general phase”.

Education is dependent on Philosophy due to following reasons:

·         Philosophy determines nature of education

·         Education is the best means for propagation of philosophy

·         Philosophy determines the various aspects of education

·         Great Philosophers have been great educationists also

Philosophy and Aims of Education

The aim of education is determined by philosophy of the nation. Examples are:

Ø  Ancient India followed Gurukulam system

Ø  Medieval India followed Muslim education

Ø  Modern India- English Education

Ø  Independent India- Democratic education

Philosophy and Curriculum

Curriculum is the means through which we realize the aims of the education. The philosophical approach to life is the guiding factor in the construction of curriculum.

 Gandhiji’s scheme of Basic education was an expression of his philosophy. He was against the lopsided system of education propounded by Lord Macaulay. His scheme of education emphasized crafts and the environment.

Introduction student’s parliament in school is the outcome of democratic philosophy.

Various philosophies like Humanism, Idealism, Pragmatism and Naturalism have influenced curriculum in varying degrees.

Philosophy and Text-books

Text-books are important instruments, through which the aims of education are realized. Textbook reflects the philosophy of those who construct it. Text books reflect the philosophy of the society. For example, in a socialist society text-books emphasis socialist philosophy. The text- book of a theocratic country may contain the values of its religion. A secular country like India promotes values of secularism, socialism, democracy and equality through its text-books.

Philosophy and Methods of teaching

Method of teaching is the procedure through which the aims of education are realized. Every philosophy has its own methods of teaching.

According to Idealism Socratic, lecture and discussion methods are preferred

Naturalism recommends learning by doing and direct experience.

Pragmatism recommends Project method and problem solving methods

Philosophy and Discipline

Discipline is a set of instructions imparted to produce a specific character or pattern of behavior. Every philosophy has its own system of disciplining.

·         In a democratic setup, discipline is viewed as inner discipline as well as social discipline based on the rights and obligations of an individual.

·         Idealism recommended Impressionistic disciple which results from the students respect for the teacher.

·         Naturalism recommended free discipline.

·         Pragmatic philosophy promotes social discipline which emerges as a result of one’s engagement in group activity.

Philosophy and Teacher

Teacher is the back-bone of the entire process of education. Therefore, it is essential that the teacher’s philosophy of life should be in perfect consonance with the philosophy on which the educational system is based. Philosophy of a teacher is reflected in all his/her deeds and with which he/she is connected.

Maria Montessori- Montessori school (Children’s house)

Froebel- Kindergarten

Gandhiji- Nai Taleem

Jiddu Krishnamurthy- Rishi Valley School

Aurobindo- International Centre for education

Conclusion

            Education and philosophy are the two sides of the same coin, cannot be separated. Likewise philosophy and education cannot be separated.

 

1.2. The Indian Schools of Philosophy- Orthodox and Heterodox- significance of Vedanta, Sankhya and Lohayata

1.2.1 Indian Schools of Philosophy

Philosophy in India is called as darśana, because it is concerned with the perennial problems of life. It comes from the Sanskrit root word ‘drś’ that means ‘to see’, ‘to look’ or ‘to view’. It is ‘the revelation of the nature of Reality' or ‘the vision of Ultimate Truth and Reality’.

1.2.2. Orthodox and Heterodox

The Indian schools of philosophy may be classified broadly into two Asthika (orthodox) and Nastika (heterodox). The first group believed in the Vedas and the latter rejected the Vedas. The Asthika school consists of Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa, and Vedanta which are also known as Shad-darsana- the six Darsanas. Nastika schools consists of Charvaka, Buddhism and Jainism that do not accept the authority of Vedas

 

Schools	Founder and Teachers	Main Philosophy
1. Sāmkhya	Kapila	Reality is Prakriti and Puruṣa
2. Yoga	Patānjali	Meditation- Aṣtāngamārga
3. Vaiśeṣika	Kannada	Reality is Atoms
4. Nyāya	Goutma	Theory of Knowledge and  logic
5. Mīmāṁsa	Jāmini	Reality is Dharma
6. Vedāntic Systems:   6.1. Advaita-Vedānta	Bādrayana   Śankarācārya	Brahman and Ātman   Reality is Non-Dual
6.2. Visishtādvaita Vedānta	Rāmanuja	Reality is Qualified One
6.3. Dvaita Vedānta	Mādhava	Reality is Dual
7. Charvaka	Bruhaspathy	Atheist- Eat think and merry
8. Jainism	Mahaviran	Atheist Philosophy
9. Budhism	Gautama Budha	Atheist philosophy

 

VEDA: THE SOURCE OF INDIAN DARŚANA

The Vedas may be assigned latest to 2500 B.C.E. (?). It is codified and classified by the Veda Vyāsa (Badarayana, Krishna Dvaipayana). The word Veda comes from the Sanskrit root ‘vid’ which means ‘to know’. Thus, Vedas means the repository of knowledge.

The Vedas are four in number, Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. Of them, the Rig Veda is the chief. The first three agree not only in their name, form, and language, but in their contents also, but Atharva is different.

Ṛig Veda means wisdom expressed in verse. It contains hymns in praise of all devatās. Here, all-natural powers got personified in the form of gods.

        Sāma Veda is a purely liturgical collection. Sāman means tunes or melody.

            Yajur Veda also serves a liturgical purpose. It means worship. The chief purpose of Yajur Veda is to render practical shape for Ṛg Vedic mantras in the form of worship.

Atharva Veda: Atharva represents priests who offer and compose mantras which are mystical rites. (Vasheekaranam, Aabicharam)

 

DIVISION IN FOUR VEDAS

Each Veda has divided into four: Saṁhitās, Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and Upaniṣads.

1. Saṁhitās means that which has been collected and arranged. It brings out the significance of a Veda in the shape of mantras, or hymns, systematically arranged. Mantras or Hymnology addressed to the various gods and goddesses like, Agni, Varuna, Indra and so on.

2. Brāhmaṇas are written in prose. They are the elaboration of the complicated ritualism of the Vedas. The rules and regulations laid down for the performance of the rites and the sacrifices are dealt in the Brāhmaṇas.

3. Āraṇyakas are named as that because they were composed in the calmness of the forests. Āraṇyakas literally means the literature of the hermits and for the hermits. This part of the Vedic literature marks the shifting of the emphasis from the ritualistic to the philosophical thought. It has a mystic interpretation of the Vedic sacrifices.

4.Upaniṣads are the concluding portions of the vedās. These are intensely philosophical and spiritual. The word ‘Upaniṣads is derived from the root ‘upa’ which means ‘near’, ‘ṣad’ which means ‘to sit’ and ‘ni’ means ‘devotedly or down’. The word, therefore, means that ‘sitting down  of the disciple near his teacher in a devoted manner to receive instruction about the highest Reality which loosens all doubts and destroys all ignorance of the disciple.’

Upaniṣads are also known as ‘Vedānta’ or ‘the end of the Veda’ because (1) they are literally the concluding portion, the end, of the Vedas, (ii) they are the essence, the cream, and the height, of the Vedic philosophy.

 

1.2.3 Significance of Vedanta

1. Vedanta Philosophy (Mimamsa-meaning enquiry)

Vedanta originally meant the Upanishads, a collection of foundational texts in Hinduism. By the 8th century, it came to mean all philosophical traditions concerned with interpreting the three basic texts of Hindu philosophy, namely the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, of which Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita, and Dwaita are the best known.

Veda-anta, i.e "Veda-end" means "the appendix to the Vedic hymns". It is also said that "Vedanta" means "the purpose or goal or end of the Vedas". Vedanta can also be used as a noun to describe one who has mastered all four of the original Vedas. In earlier writings, Sanskrit 'Vedanta' simply referred to the Upanishads, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedanta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads. The canonical texts or source book of Vedanta is (Prastanatrayi) The Upanishads, The Brahma Sutra and The Bhagavad Gita

2. Basic Questions of Vedanta Philosophy

            The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between atman and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world. The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between Atman and Brahman:

·         According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.

·         According to Dvaita the jivatman is totally different from Brahman.

·         According to Vishishtadvaita, the jivatman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.

❖     Madhva said: “Man is the servant of God,” and established his Dvaita philosophy.

❖     Ramanuja said: “Man is a ray or spark of God,” and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy.

❖      Sankara said: “Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul,” and established his Advaita

3. Aims of Education

§  Chitta-Vritti-Nirodh: Education must aim at self-fulfillment and provide freedom from material desires and attachment.

§  Education of Mind: Education must provide knowledge for creativity and pursuit of culture and civilization.

§  Make living worthy: Education should make life worthwhile, purposeful and relevant.

§  Tamso-ma-Jyotirgamaya: Knowledge should dispel doubts, dogmas and darkness.

§  Religion centred: Religion dominated every aspect of life, all national, personal, social and educative procedures and practices, hence education should be wedded to religion.

§  Individual-Centred: Education was for individual which was its chief concern. Education should therefore aim at overall development of an individual.

§  Nature Oriented: The centres of education were located from the populated and crowded areas, more in natural surroundings. Education should make man one with nature.

4. Curriculum

According to Kathopanishad, the subjects fell into two categories: Para-vidya or (spiritual learning) and Apara-vidya or (worldly learning).

 

5. Methods of Teaching

§  The first method was Maukhik (oral) and

§  second was based on chinthan (thinking or reflection).

§   In the oral method students were to memorize the mantras (vedic hymns) and Richayas (verses of Rigveda).

§  The process of education passed through three stages of comprehension i.e Shravan (Hearing), Manan (meditation) and Nidhidhyasan (realization and experience).

§   Methods of teaching was based on apprenticeship and was psychologically sound.

§  Teaching followed some strategies such as simple to complex, activity and skill oriented procedures, Question-Answer technique and illustration.

§  Self-study (Swadhyaya) was considered more important.

6. Teacher

ü  During Vedic period the teacher occupied very, important place in the scheme of education.

ü  He was the centre of education and without him no education could be conceived of.

ü  He was called Guru or Acharya and he was respected as a god by the student as we as the society. Even the king did not enjoy so much respect as the teacher enjoyed.

ü  Rules for conduct of both teachers and pupils were listed down.

-For the discipline; Rules also for respect due from pupils to teacher were framed,

-Rigid rules were laid for conduct of pupils,

-Code of dress was observed,

-and observation of Brahmacharya or celibacy was compulsory for all pupils.

7. Educational Implications of Vedanta Philosophy

1. Pride in civilization and culture: we feel proud of the civilization and culture of our ancestors inherited to us. Educational aims of Vedic age are accepted in principle as aims of modern education to build character and make life worth living for our young ones.

2. Discipline and pupil teacher relationship: The sense of discipline and cordial relation between teacher and pupil of vedic age is well known to the world.

3. Subject of studies: Vedic literature is enriched by the sense of peace, humanity, universal brotherhood which is also vital part of our curriculum.

        4. Teaching Methods: Hearing, thinking (meditation), and experience

        5. All round development of child

        6. Equality of opportunity: There was no discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, colour, etc and the students of all strata of society received education on an equal footing. In modern society, the constitution has adopted the principle of equality in the field of education.

        7. Education for self-sufficiency: Vocational subjects are included in the curriculum.

        8. Commercial education and Vedic mathematics: The ideas of the scope and nature of commercial geography, needs of the people of various localities, exchange value and quality of articles and language spoken at different trade centres were considered necessary.

 

2. Significance of Samkhya Philosophy

1. Samkhya Darshana

Ø  It is the most ancient of the six systems.

Ø  It is based on two ultimate principles namely –the spirit (purusa) and matter (prakriti).

Ø  Purusha is pure consciousness while prakriti primordial matter, the creative potential.

Ø   Prakriti has form, color and attributes and three gunas are Sattva (purity, calmness, harmonius), Rajas (activity, passion, movement) and Tamas (ignorance, inertia, laziness)

Ø  Prakriti creates all forms in the universe, while Purusha is the witness to this energy.

Ø  Prakriti cannot exist without Purusha. However, there can be Purusha without Prakriti.

Ø   The creative process (shristi) begins when Purusha, joins prakriti and becomes established in it. Out of this process evolve 24 principles.

1.Mahat: The great principle.

2. Buddhi: the discriminating, reasoning and causative intelligence.

3.Ahamkara: the ego –principle.

4.Manas: the mind or the sixth sense.

5. Panchendriyas: the five sense organs: ears, eyes, nose, tongue and skin.

6.Five karmendriyas: the five organs of action: (the hands, legs, vocal apparatus, urino-genital organs and anus.)

7. Five tanmatras: five subtle elements (sound, touch, sight, taste and smell).

8. Five Mahabhutas: the five gross elements (earth, water, air, fire and ether).

Ø According to samkhya ‘Mukti’ or deliverance (or liberation of the soul) is the ultimate purpose of once’s life. This Mukti may be obtained through realizing the difference between the prakriti and purusha.

2.The Samkhya in Education

·         The primary concern of the Samkhya seems to be the mukti or freedom of the purusa from the bondage of the material body. This is possible only through knowledge of the true nature of  purusa.

·         Knowledge is the only means to obtain freedom, the need of education in the samkhya get top priority.

·         This system is the process of life long education itself

3. Educational Implications of Samkhya Philosophy

1. The meaning of true education

      The true education is that which acquaints one with the differences between prakriti and purusha.

2. The fundamental purpose of education

      According to Samkhya liberation of the soul is the ultimate purpose of one’s life. It is obtained through realizing the difference between the prakriti and purusha. For the realization of this end practice of Yoga is necessary. Moral conduct is the first requisite of yoga.

3. The aim of education is…

      1. to eradication of triple sorrows (Adhiboutika, Adhudaivika and adhyatmika) of life.

      2. to Know thy self (Socrates also holds this), he is essentially a spirit and never a material existence ultimately

      3. To enable man to work out his own salvation (there is no God to help)

      4. To prepare a dynamic citizen (social change) of the world.

      5. The critical faculty of the student is to be developed and sharpened

      6. To develop a dynamic personality full of noble character

      7. Prepare a student for acquiring different skills needed in life.

      8. a holistic development regarding physical, mental, social, intellectual and the moral development.

4. Teacher and Taught

      1. A spiritual relationship between the teacher and student is needed.

      2. Teacher should have perfect knowledge and satisfying the curiosity of the student.

      3. Student should be polite, obedient and full of service to the teacher.

      4. The teacher is needed to make the student aware of his will force.

      5. The element of self-sense and self-respect is needed

5. Curriculum

·         Play and study (Physical and mental growth together)

·         Language, SS, Literature, mathematics, physics etc are included in the curriculum

·         The subject should be taught according to the interest and aptitudes of adolescents

·         Individual is ever growing, hence there is need for his continual education till he is able to distinguish between matter and spirit.

   6. Methods of teaching: Teacher centred

   7. Discipline: Self-Discipline

3. Significance of Charvaka or Lokayata Philosophy (Indian Materialism)

Ø  Materialism claims matter is the reality.

Ø  Cārvāka system is known as "Indian Materialism" within Indian philosophy.

Ø  Lokāyata functioned as a sort of  negative reaction to spiritualism and supernaturalism.

Ø  "Lokāyata" means philosophy of the people.

Ø   Cārvāka comes from two words Cāru and Vākku which means ‘sweet tongued’. It signifies a person who believes in eat, drinks and merry, or a person who eats up his  own words, or who eats up all moral and ethical considerations.

Ø  Bṛhaspati is considered as its original founder and for this reason also been named "Bṛhaspatya."

Ø  The Source Text- Bṛhaspati authored the classic work Bṛhaspati Sῡtra.

Ø   The Maxim- Eat, Drink and Merry.

MAIN DOCTRINES

Ø  Cārvaka understands Reality as Matter and perception is the only means to attain the knowledge of reality.

Ø  The doctrine of Cārvaka is known as Svabhāva Vāda. The term "Svabhāva" in Sanskrit can be translated to "essence" or "nature." Bṛhaspati used the term to indicate that general characteristics of an object attributed to itself and not to any other agent.

Ø  Doctrines can be summarized as:

I. Theories of Knowledge (Epistemology)

1. Perception is the only Pramāṇas (Means of knowledge)

2.Svabhāva Vāda - it traced general characteristics of an object to itself and not to any other agent

3. Earth, water, fire and air are the four elements

4. Bodies, senses and objects are the combinations of these elements

5.                                                     Consciousness arises from matter

2. Metaphysics

1.The soul is nothing but conscious body

2. They reject all transcental entities like soul, God, law of karma, rebirth etc.

3. Ethics

1. Enjoyment is the only end of human life

2. Death alone is liberation

In ethics they regard sensual pleasures (kama) as the highest good and wealth (Artha) is regarded as the means to realize the end. Thus, they reject Dharma and Moksha as the end of life. They also reject the highest goal of life as heaven or the liberation. By their sceptic attitude and rejection of commonly accepted idea they gave the other schools of philosophy some food for thought.

 

1.3 Indian Philosophers

1.  Swami Vivekananda (1863 - 1902)

Swami Vivekananda whose original name was Narendranath Datta, was born in    Culcutta. As a child he developed great taste for music and was very skillful in sports. He began mastering the Hindu classics under the guidance of his mother. At the age of 18, urged by his burning thirst for divine enlightenment, he first met Sri Ramakrishna. During the ensuing six years of association with the master he had a spiritual transformation and emerged as Swami Vivekakanada.

After the death of Sri Ramakrishna in 1886, Swami Vivekanada organized the master’s disciples into the illustrious Ramakrishna Mission. He devoted most of the last fifteen years of his strenuous life to communicate his universal message of unity and tolerance. He traveled to all corners of India and experienced the anguish of the country’s impoverished multitude. He visited much of Easter Asia, Europe and United States. It was in Chicago at the Parliament of Religions in 1893 that he first gained international attention. It is high time that we give serious thought to his philosophy of education and remembers his call to every-body-‘arise, awake, and stop not till the goal is reached.”

Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda

For Vivekanada God is the ultimate and universal reality that exist in this universe. All phenomena, animate and inanimate, man and animal, body, mind and soul, are all his manifestations. However, human being does not realize this reality due to the illusion or maya. He believed that the study of Vedanta would tear this veil and man would see himself in this reality. He emphasized the need for “Jnana Yoga”, “Karma Yoga” and “Bhathi Yoga “.

Meaning of Education (philosophy of education)

According to Vivekanada ‘Education is the manifestation of the divine perfection already in man’. The aim of education is to manifest in our lives the perfection, which is the very nature of our inner self. This perfection is the realization of the infinite power which resides in everything and every-where- existence, consciousness and bliss (satchitananda). All knowledge is within the individual, it requires only an awakening. He says that the process of education is inner growth and development of the powers inherent in the individual. The child educates himself and develops according to his abilities as a plant grows according to its own nature. He conceived of an education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, intellect is expanded, and by which one can stand on one’s own feet”. In short Education for him signifies ‘man- making’ process.

The aims of education according to Vivekananda are: (man-making education)

·        Education for self development

·        Education for the fulfillment of Swadharma

·        Education for serving humanity

·        Education for developing feeling of brotherhood

·        Education for attaining self-reliance and self sufficiency

·        Education for character formation.

·        Education for developing spiritual life.

The curriculum

His curriculum aimed at the development of the child’s personality. More importance is given to the study of philosophy, Vedanta, religion, technology, science, art and other modern disciplines. The learner should meet the needs of  the modern community and take up the challenges. The study of social sciences like history, geography, economics, agriculture, engineering and vocational education are included in the curriculum to make the learning self- sufficient. Physical education was included to have a strong mind in a strong body. He laid stress upon teaching in mother tongue and for the unity of the country a common language he preferred. Sanskrit also needed for knowing Indian culture.

The Method of Teaching

Vivekananda’s method of education resembles the heuristic method of the modern educationists. In this system, the teacher invokes the spirit of inquiry  in the pupil who is supposed to find out things for himself under the bias-free guidance of the teacher. He also recommended Concentration as a method in education. By it complete mastery of mind, control of internal and external senses, acquisition of the great powers of endurance can be achieved. He stresses women education.

Role of the Teacher

·         The teacher must understand the students.

·         A dedicated, service- minded and committed teacher with a pure heart and mind is necessary.

·         The personal life of the teacher is critical in several ways and influences the spread of education and the process of learning by the young ones.

·     Love, affection, and empathy on the part of the teacher and the feeling of appreciation and respect on the part of the learner could create an ambience in the teaching-learning process

·     Swamiji wanted teachers to know the spirit of all the scriptures

·         A pure heart and selfless motive  characterizes the true teacher.

 

 

Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975)

Dr.Radhakrishnan was Born in Tamilnadu in 1888. He started his teaching career as professor of philosophy in different Indian universities. In 1929 he joined as professor of comparative Religion in the Oxford University. After completing his term at Oxford University he was the Vice Chancellor of various Indian universities.

He started his formal political career when he was appointed as Indian Ambassador to the USSR. In 1952 he wass elected as the first Vice –president and in 1962 as president of the Indian Republic. In India 5th September, the birthday Dr, Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan is celebrated as Teacher Day. When Dr. Radhakrishnan became the president of India in 1962, some of his students and friends approached him and requested him to allow them to celebrate 5th September, his “birthday”. In reply, Dr. Radhakrishnan said, “instead of celebrating my birthday separately, it would be my proud privilege if September 5 is observed as Teachers’ day”. The request showed   Dr. Radhakrishnan’s love for the teaching profession. From then onwards, the day has been observed as Teachers’ Day in India.

Meaning and functions of education

For Dr. Radhakrishnan education is a process of training of Intellect, Heart and Spirit. It is a pursuit for truth and wisdom. He viewed education as an initiation into the life of spirit - as second birth. Education should deepen insight, widen horizon and create a meaningful outlook and should development a scientific spirit “Any satisfactory system of education should aim at a balanced growth of the individual and insist on both knowledge and wisdom, janamvijanasahitam

Role of the Teacher

Dr.Rahakrishnan viewed teachers as ‘gurus’ , “acharyas” who leads the individual from darkness to light. He should be a role model for the students. For him teaching is a noble vocation and a Mission.

 

2. Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)

Mahatma Gandhi is considered to be one of the greatest teachers of mankind. His worldview is a perfect synthesis of the eastern idealism with its spiritual emphasis and the western pragmatism with its emphasis on life. Gandhiji strongly believed in God, the Almighty and the supreme ruler and he believed in the spiritual unity of all human being. According to Gandhiji, man’s ultimate aim is the realization of God and all his endeavor-political, religious and social- must be guided to this end. “The only way to find god is to see him in his creation and be one with it – I am a part and parcel of the whole and I cannot find him apart from the rest of humanity”. Gandhiji recommended ‘Non- violence’ which is a positive attitude of tolerance, patience, perseverance, self- sacrifice and self-suffering. Non – violence is also called ‘Ahimsa’ by him. Ahimsa, in practical application, is called ‘Satyagraha’ which is a “method of security, a right by personal suffering and not by inflicting injury on others”.

His vision of education

Gandhiji summed up his ideas on education: “By education I mean an all round drawing out of the best in child and man-body, mind, and spirit”. All round implies a harmonious development head, heart, and hand. Drawing out of the best recognizes a great potential coiled up in the child, which can be realized and developed to its perfection. Body, mind and spirit is a vision of the whole man. The first emphasis is on the body and the culmination point is the spirit. Education cannot be confined to childhood and youth, it has to take into account the whole life of man; and that is the significance of the phrase best in child and man

Aim of Education

1. Knowledge of God, Oneness with God, spiritualism and self-realization are the ultimate aim

2. Harmonious development of one’s personality

3. Self-sufficiency

4. Character building

5. Training for leadership, utilitarian aim, cultural aim, welfare of the society, education for equality, brotherhood, cooperaton and world peace.

Basic Education -NaiTalim

Basic education is the life centered education propounded by Gandhiji. In the year 1937, he wrote a series of article in the ‘Harijan’. The all India national conference at Wardha discussed the scheme and appointed an expert committee under the chairmanship of Dr.Zakir Hussain to workout the details and to prepare the syllabi for the scheme. The committee submitted its report in 1938 and the principles were accepted by the national leaders. It is popularly known as the Wardha Scheme, a national programme in basic education.

It is known as basic education for the following reasons

1)     It is based on the ancient Indian culture and lays down the minimum education, which every Indian child is entitled to receive without the distinction of caste or creed.

2)    It is intimately related to the basic needs and interests of the child and makes use of his inborn potentials for creative and productive work.

3)   It is closely associated with the basic occupation of the community that the child hails from.

Salient Features of Basic Education

1.    Free and compulsory education for all children. Gandhiji advocated that within the age group 6 to 14, there should be free, compulsory and universal education.

2.      Craft centeredness. The basic national education aimed at providing education through the medium of crafts or productive work. The crafts adopted by Gandhiji were spinning and weaving, carpentry, agriculture, fruit and vegetable gardening, leather works etc.

His novel idea of introducing craft in education is guided by the following reasons.

I.             To construct the village of India and to help the poor and weaker members of society. Thus, he used education as a special tool in the reform of Indian village life.

II.            It is based on the principle of “learning by doing”.

III.             To bring out a correlation between the school and the community.

IV.            To develop problem-solving attitude among children.

V.             To give vocational bias to education.

3.   Self-supporting. Basic education is self-supporting. Gandhiji advocated that old principle, “Papa pays and bay plays” should be changed to, earn while you learn’. Children earn from their craftwork to cover their expenses.

4.   Medium – mother tongue. Gandhiji emphasized on the mother tongue to be the medium of instruction and the subject of study. The mother tongue would enable the children to express themselves effectively, clearly and lucidly. It can acquaint the child with his heritage, ethical and moral values

5.     Correlation. In basic education subjects are taught not in water tight compartments but in correlation. The whole range of desirable subjects are integrated round the productive activities on the physical and social environment.

6.       Non-violence. Another important feature of basic education is its application of the principle of nonviolence. In order to wipe out the evils of violence, children are trained in arts of peace and cult of nonviolence.

7.   Citizenship training. Through active participation in social activities children shed their angularities and become refined citizens and develop qualities of leadership, co-operation, team spirit and honesty.

Method of Teaching

The Gandhian method of teaching has certain unique features. Gandhiji introduced craft as the center of teaching learning process. The craft chosen should be productive and suitable to the local needs and conditions. It is conceived as a purposeful activity to create love of work and dignity of labor among pupils. Activity and experience are also given great emphasis in the craft centered methods.

Curriculum

Gandhiji’s curriculum is activity centered. It is meant to prepare the child for practical work, conducted experiments and do research so that he is able to develop himself physically, mentally and spiritually and become a useful member of society.

Gandhiji recommended the following studies

                    A basic craft in accordance with the local conditions, Mother tongue, C. Arithmetic, Social studies, General science including nature study, botany, zoology physiology, hygiene, chemistry and physical culture, Art work, Music and Domestic work for girls.

Discipline

Gandhiji advocated discipline through self-control. He stressed the importance of self- discipline through purposeful activities. He also pointed out the importance of religious and moral education for developing self- discipline

 

Teacher

Gandhiji advocated devotion to the teacher, Guru-bhakti. He says “education of the heart could only be done through the living touch of the teacher”. Education becomes effective and faithful only to the extent to which there is personal touch between the teacher and the taught. It will be difficult to achieve character building in the absence of devotion to teacher. Gandhiji anticipated a nonviolent personality in the teacher. He should have devotion to duty, to the student and to God. He is to play the role of mother. Gandhiji in his book ‘My views of education’, says “one who cannot take the place of a mother cannot be a teacher. The teacher must really be a mother to children. The child should never feel that he is being taught. Let her simply keep her eye upon him and guide him.

 

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)

Rabindranath Tagore, Asia’s first Nobel Laureate, was born into a prominent Calcutta family known for its socio-religious and cultural innovations during the 19th Bengal Renaissance.

Basic Principles (Pillars) of Tagore’s philosophy of education

a)     Universal Brotherhood. (God is our father and we are brothers and sisters)

b)     Freedom.

c)      Creative self-expression.

d)     Active communication with nature and man.

Aims of Education

The aim of education according to Tagore is creative self-expression through physical, mental, aesthetic and moral development. He stressed the need for developing empathy and sensitivity, and the necessity for an intimate relationship with one’s cultural and natural environment. He saw education as a vehicle for appreciating the richest aspects of other cultures, while maintaining one’s own cultural specificity.

Curriculum

In general, he envisioned an education that was deeply rooted in one’s immediate surroundings but connected to the cultures of the wider world, predicated upon pleasurable learning and individualized to the personality of the child. He felt that a curriculum should revolve organically around nature with classes held in the open air under the trees to provide for a spontaneous appreciation of the fluidity of the plant and animal kingdoms, and seasonal changes. Children sat on hand-woven mats beneath the trees, which they were allowed to climb and run beneath between classes. Nature walks and excursions were a part of the curriculum and students were encouraged to follow the life cycles of insects, birds and plants. In Tagore’s philosophy of education, the aesthetic development of the senses was as important as the intellectual—if not more so—and music, literature, art, dance and drama were given great prominence in the daily life of the school. This was particularly so after the first decade of the school. Rabindranath tried to create an atmosphere in which the arts would become instinctive

Methods of Education

In keeping with his theory of subconscious learning, Tagore made use of methods like debates and discussions, heuristic method, activity method. Rabindranath never talked or wrote down to the students, but rather involved them with whatever he was writing or composing. The students were allowed access to the room where he read his new writings to teachers and critics, and they were encouraged to read out their own writings in special literary evenings. In teaching also, he believed in presenting difficult levels of literature, which the students might not fully grasp, but which would stimulate them.

Role of the Teacher

Tagore assigns an important place to the teacher. The teacher is a guru. He is to guide and stimulate the students. He remarked,” A teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself. A lamb can never light another lamb unless it continues to burn in its own flame”

Santhiniketan School and Visva-Bharathi

As an alternative to the existing forms of education, he started a small school at Santiniketan in 1901 that developed into a university and rural reconstruction centre, known as VishwaBharti, where he tried to develop an alternative model of education that stemmed from his own learning experiences. He dedicated forty years of his life to his educational institution at Santiniketan. Students at Santiniketan were encouraged to create their own publications and put out several illustrated magazines. The children were encouraged to follow their ideas in painting and drawing and to draw inspiration from the many visiting artists and writers.

Rabindranath envisioned Visva-Bharati, as a learning centre where conflicting interests are minimized, where individuals work together in a common pursuit of truth and realise ‘that artists in all parts of the world have created forms of beauty, scientists discovered secrets of the universe, philosophers solved the problems of existence, saints made the truth of the spiritual world organic in their own lives, not merely for some particular race to which they belonged, but for all mankind.’

 

Sri Aurobindo (1872 – 1950)

An explorer and adventurer in consciousness, a visionary of evolution Sri Aurobindo was born in Calcutta, on 15 August 1872. He is a thinker, patriot, political leader, poet and a social reformer. He is not only a pragmatist but also a true idealist. He started a Journal called Bandematharam.

His Philosophy

According to Aurobindo everyone has in him something divine. The individual a soul is a portion of the Divinity enwrapped in mind and body, a conscious manifestation in Nature of the universal self and spirit. This “life divine” has to be realized through Integral Yoga.

The meaning and purpose of education

Education is meant to bring out the best in Man, to develop his potentialities to the maximum, to integrate him with himself, his surroundings, his society, his country and humanity to make him the “complete man”, the “integrated man”. In Sri Aurobindo’s words: “That alone will be a true and living education which helps to bring out to full advantage, makes ready for the full purpose and scope of human life all that is in the individual man, and which at the same time helps him to enter into his right relation with the life, mind and soul of the people to which he belongs and with that great total life, mind and soul of humanity of which he himself is a unit and his people or nation a living, a separate yet inseparable member.”

 

According to him, teacher is a helper, guide and instructor and has to provide adequate freedom and facilities for the all-round development of child’s personality.

Integral education

Aurobindo emphasized the five dimensions of personality i.e.

a)     The Physical, formed of our body and all its inner and outer functioning.

b)     The Vital, the seat of our impulses and desires, of enthusiasm and violence, of dynamic energy, passions and will.

c)      The Mental, formed of our thinking and reasoning parts.

d)     The ‘Psychic’, or soul which is “the psychological centre of our being, the seat within of the highest truth of our existence, that which can know and manifest the truth.”

e)     Spiritual, the aspiration to find and express the Reality behind all existence, the unity behind the diversity of creation.

Education, to be integral, must help all these five aspects of our personality to grow to the fullest. Integrality of education is conceived as a process of organic growth, and the way in which various faculties could be developed and integrated is dependent upon each child’s inclination, rhythm of progression and law of development, Swabhava (inherent disposition) and Swadharma (inner nature).

The principles of teaching

In a series of articles that Sri Aurobindo wrote in 1909– 10, he enunciated three fundamental principles of teaching.

 ‘The first principle of true teaching is that nothing can be taught. The teacher is not an instructor or task master; he is a helper and a guide. His business is to suggest and not to impose’.

The second principle according to Sri Aurobindo, is that ‘the mind has to be consulted in its growth’. He pointed out that the idea of hammering the child into the shape desired by the parents or teacher is a barbarous and ignorant superstition. He warned that to force the nature to abandon its own dharma is to do it permanent harm, mutilate its growth and deform its perfection, and that there can be no greater error than for the parents or the teachers to arrange beforehand that the given student shall develop particular qualities, capacities, ideas, virtues or be prepared for a pre-arranged career.

And the third principle of education that Sri Aurobindo laid down is to work from near to the far, from that which is to that which shall be. Knowledge has to be a growth from personal experience to higher experience.

1.4. Major Schools of Philosophy- Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, Realism, Humanism.

 

1.4.1. Idealism in Education

Idealism is the oldest philosophical thought exercising great influence in all the ages. It has exercised the minds of western philosophers like Socrates Plato, Berkeley, Hegel, Hume, Kant and Indian thinkers like Tagore, Gandhiji, Aurobindo Ghosh. First used by Plato, the word idealism is derived from two distinct sources-the “idea” and the “ideal”. Ideal means true and testified knowledge. The word ideal stands for the perfected form of an “idea” or “ideas”. Idealism accepts “ideas” as something external and unchanging, unlike the object of sense, which are in constant flux. The ideas are of cosmic significance. They are “archetypes”. They are not in the state of becoming. Idealist wishes man to live a life of “ideals” which are infallible and unchanging.

Basic Tenets or Fundamental Principles of idealism

1. The ultimate reality is mind

2. The mental and spiritual aspect is more important than the material aspect of life

3. Man is a spiritual being and his soul is immortal

4. It emphasizes the eternal values of truth, goodness and beauty

5. Man has an end which is union with God

6. God is the source of all knowledge

7. The idea is real not the object

Characteristics of Idealism

1)   Two forms of world- material and spiritual

2)  Ideas are more important than object

3)  Values are predetermined, absolute and unchanging

4)  Importance of human beings over nature

5)  Mind as the primary reality

6)  Knowledge as the product of reason

7)  Faith in spiritual values

8)  Principle of unity in diversity

Idealism and Aims of Education

The search for truth

One of the major emphasis of idealist philosophy is the search for truth. Students were encouraged to reach out toward the conceptual world of ideas rather than the perceptual one of sense data. Plato believed that one must break away from the chains of ignorance, greed, or apathy. Such a person would be on the road to enlightenment. Neo Platonists agreed with Plato that the highest aim is search for truth, but Even more strongly than Plato that truth has over whelming spiritual implications. The search for truth is a search for God. A true education leads one to god. Since God is pure idea, then God can be reached only through contemplation of ideas; therefore, a true education is one that is concerned with ideas rather than matter.

1. Self-realization or Exaltation of personality

For idealist education is not simply growing, it is growing towards a goal. The immediate objective is the realization of values. The remote objective or the absolute goal is to be in the spiritual order of the universe. Education in the final analysis is the up building of humanity in the image of divinity. Education should aim at developing a self-directed striving after a form to which an individual has an inherent impulse. Recognizing the immense potentialities of man, the idealist wish that the aim of education should be full realization of these potentialities to enable him to become his highest and truest self.

2. Spiritual Development.

Idealist give greater importance to spiritual values in comparison with material attainments. According to Rusk “education must enable mankind through its culture to enter more and more fully into the spiritual realm and also to enlarge the boundaries of spiritual realm. The divine in man is to be unfolded and brought to his consciousness by means of education”.

3. Realization of truth, beauty and goodness

For the idealist truth, beauty and goodness are the absolute and eternal values which have universal validity. These universal values should become one’s values and give power to one’s life. They must be pursued for their own sake and not for any ulterior motive. These values can be promoted through intellectual, aesthetic and moral education.

4. Conservation and transmission of cultural heritage

Culture is the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The cultural treasure belongs to the whole humanity and it is the purpose of education to preserve, develop and transmit it in all corners of the world.

5. Conversion of inborn nature into spiritual nature

Idealist believes that human beings have two natures-the original nature and spiritual nature. Education must convert the original nature into spiritual nature. The inborn instincts and inherent tendencies of the child should be sublimated into spiritual qualities and values.

6. Development of intelligence and rationality

Intelligence and rationality help in understanding the purpose, plan and organization of the universe. It helps in arriving at the principle of unity in diversity. Hence the idealist gives importance to the development of intelligence and rationality.

In sum the aim of idealist education is to develop the natural man into an ideal man having physical, intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual perfection. Education should help the full evolution of mind the emancipation of spirit self realization and the realization of higher values of life.

Idealism and curriculum

Development of skills

Care of body

Physical Activities

Aesthetic

Moral

Religious

Intellectual

According to idealism, the curriculum must be designed to develop the total personality of the child. For these educations must be religious, moral, intellectual and aesthetic. None of these aspects maybe neglected if a harmoniously balanced personality is to be the result. James S. Ross explains the idealist curriculum through the following diagram

Spiritual Activities

Education

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                                                                                                                        

 

 

Idealism and methods of teaching

Idealists have not adopted any specific and definite method of teaching. The idealist accepts any method that would help the individual to realize the spiritual aim. Plato advocated the Socratic or dialectical method. It is a method of discovering the truth of ideas by discussion and logical argumentation and by considering ideas that are opposed to each other. Idealists also adopt discussion and lecture methods.

Idealism and teacher

For idealist the role the teacher is very important and glorious. He is a spiritual father

Teacher as a Gardner

The teacher      should be more philosophically oriented and should have deep knowledge of his subject

The idealist teacher is imbued fully with high degree of self-knowledge, self-dynamism and essential qualities of spiritualism.

By his own model of life, he tries to shape the individuality of the child to a life of purity, virtue and great achievements.

 He guides the child with genuine love, affection and sympathy that he attains his full mental and spiritual development.

Idealism and Discipline

Idealists believe that there can be no spiritual development of the child without discipline. Idealist attach importance to impressionistic discipline. They wish that the personality of the teacher should be so imposing that the children have a sense of awe. They assert that the teacher should first gain respect from the child by his affectionate and sympathetic behavior. Teacher should help the pupils to exercise and maintain self-discipline fully realizing that this self discipline is for their own good and development.

Critique of Idealism in education

Many adherents of idealism point to its strength such as (1) the high cognitive level of education idealist promote (2) their concern for safeguarding and  promoting cultural learning (3) their great concern for morality and character development (4)their view of the teacher as a person of respect central to the educational process (5) their stress on the importance of self-realization, (6) their stress upon the human and personal side of life, and (7) their comprehensive, systematic and holistic approach.

Generally, idealism is criticized as a rigid and dogmatic philosophy emphasizing immutable and fixed aims. Several factors have contributed to a weakening of idealism in contemporary affairs: developments in the field of science have brought about fundamental challenges to idealistic principles, the renewed vigor of realism and naturalistic philosophies has put more emphasis on newness as opposed to cultural heritage and lasting values has eroded the idealist position.

The idealist notion of a finished and absolute universe waiting to be discovered has hindered progress in science and the creation of new ideas and process. Contemporary science is largely characterized by Heisenberg’s “principle of indeterminacy” that says, in effect, we cannot be certain about anything. Einstein’s theory of relativity has been used to challenge the idealist assertion of a fixed universe. Still another cause of the weakening of idealism is the historical decline of traditional religious influence in contemporary affairs.

 

2. Naturalism in Education (Materialism)

Naturalism is the doctrine which states that the world can be understood in scientific terms without recourse to spiritual or supernatural explanations. The roots of naturalism can be seen in the thought pattern of Greek philosophers like Democrites and Epicurus. In modern times it was developed by Thomas Hobbes, Jean Jacques, Rousseau and Herbert Spencer

Basic tenets

1. Primacy of matter: For naturalist the ultimate reality is matter, which manifests itself in the form of nature. Everything that can be seen, touched, felt etc. is matter. In other words material world or nature can be comprehended through human senses and scientific investigation.

2. Importance of nature: For naturalist the word nature has two interpretation, external nature and internal nature. External nature is the physical nature and internal nature is the basic instincts, impulses tendencies, capacities and other inborn potentialities of a child. According to naturalism the external laws of nature should correspond and cooperate with the internal nature of child for his full natural development.

3. Positive attitude to human nature: The naturalist views human nature with profound reverence. For them human nature is good rather than fallen. Every human is virtuous and has the innate capacity for morality.

4. Importance of senses: Naturalist believes that senses are the gateways of knowledge. Naturalists says that all knowledge is comprehensible through senses. Anything which cannot be comprehended through senses does not exist

5. Mind as matter: Naturalist considers mind as ‘matter’, which is in the process of evolution. To them mind is the function of brain. Experiences, imagination, thinking, reasoning etc are the process of mental activity and these processes can be studied through senses.

6. Changing nature of truth: For naturalist truth is not absolute or final but a product of environment and temperamental condition and hence relative and provisional

Principles of education

From the fundamentals of naturalism, expounded earlier, the following directive principles emerge for education

1. ‘Follow Nature’ is the greatest slogan of naturalism in education. Natural development of the child, the naturalist believe, takes place in the natural environment rather than in a artificially designed atmosphere of the school. They use ‘Nature in two sense-one conveying the physical nature and second the nature of the child i.e. the tendencies, capacities impulses, instincts with which the child is born. Accordingly, in the first sense, the physical nature supplies the laws of learning and in the second sense it urges that while educating the child, his whole nature should be taken into consideration. The educator should recognize: (a) the natural development stage in the child, and (b) levels of readiness and individual and environmental differences of children

1. Child as the center of educational process - “It is the child himself rather than the educator , the school, the book or the subjects of study that should be in the fore-ground of the educational picture”. Unnecessary interference on the part of parents or teachers should be avoided. “Children should be treated as children and not as small adults”. “Nature would have them children before they are men”. “Education finds its purpose, its process and the means wholly within the child’s life and experiences”.

2. Freedom - The child should be emancipated from the tyranny of outworn practices and rigorous discipline . He should be given freedom and respect. Freedom should be the pivot round which the educational programme should be planned. “Child is a good, not an evil being; being born good he remains good when all opportunities of fear and hate are abolished”. The naturalist cannot tolerate that education “which sacrifices the present to an uncertain future, that burdens a child with all sorts of restrictions and begins to prepare him for some far-off happiness which he may never enjoy”.

1.     Instincts should be the main instruments of education - They must be exploited fully to modify behavior of human from ‘animal behavior’ to ‘human behavior’.

2.     Senses as the gateways of knowledge - Sensory experiences should be provided abundantly if learning is to be made effective and permanent.

3.     Environment makes human good or bad - Human is the creature of environment. Child is not vicious by nature. A suitable environment therefore should be improvised so that he can imbibe goodness and discard evil, enjoy beauty and reject ugliness, be truthful and virtuous.

Naturalism and aims of education

For some naturalist the aim of education is “to equip the individual to adjust himself to the environment and thus ensure his survival”. The individual must be in “harmony with and well adapted to his surroundings”. Naturalist view education as “the process of development of the child into a joyful, rational, harmoniously balanced, useful and natural child”. Real education accrues “when the nature, powers and inclinations of the child are allowed to develop freely with minimum of guidance”.

Naturalism and curriculum

Naturalism gives much importance to evolutionary theory, empirical teaching and scientific analysis. Naturalists want to introduce physical and social science at every level of education. Language and mathematics for the naturalists are tools for the learning of science and both should be taught only so long as they assist the learning of science

Herbert Spencer, a staunch Naturalist advocates ‘complete Living Aim of education and to achieve this curriculum should contain physiology biology physics chemistry and home science as main subjects and language, literature, art and other cultural subjects as subsidiary subjects.

Naturalism and methods of teaching

Naturalism discards all rigid, uniform traditional and stereotyped techniques of teaching.

It stresses the need for Negative Education. No importance is attached to formal schools and textbooks, as according to the naturalist these hinder the natural development of the children. Their emphasis is not on informational aspect of learning but on the total experience of children which they get directly through contact with nature. In the words of Rousseau “give your scholar no verbal lessons; he should be taught by experience alone. Teach   by doing whenever you can; and only fall back on words when doing is out of question”.

The naturalist gives importance to methods like play way, and activity. Play, being the chief attraction of the child, the naturalists have given a prominent place to the “play-way” of teaching and learning. Through this medium not only the child express himself fully, he acquires confidence and becomes creative. “It is in his free play that the child most clearly reveals his nature and the lines of his natural development”. In fact, they regard “childhood as play hood”.

The naturalist’s educators attach great value to creative activities. He “allows the child to follow the lines of his natural interests and to have free choice of activity with no interference or thwarting”. Experience and actual confrontation with situation result in sound knowledge.

Direct experience with nature, things and men imparts knowledge more scientifically than chalk and talk methods. Rousseau counsels, give your scholar no verbal lessons, he should be taught by experience alone”.

Naturalism and teacher

According to naturalism nature is the only Supreme teacher, in whose close contact the child develops normally and naturally.

In the process of education, the place of the child is more important and central than the teacher.

The teacher should not impose upon the child anything under his own authority or supremacy.

The place of the educator is “behind the scene; he is an observer of the child’s development rather than a giver of information, ideas, and will power, or moulder of character.  

The child will forge for himself; he knows better than any educator what he should learn, when and how he should learn it, what he should do and how he should do it”.

The teacher has only to “set the stage, supply the materials and opportunities, provide an ideal environment and create conditions conducive to natural development”.

Naturalism and discipline

In the field of discipline naturalist depends upon nature and advocate the theory of discipline by natural consequences. According to them, nature will punish the child if he contravenes the law of nature and thus he will learn by the consequences of his own actions. Thus, nobody should interfere in this process of nature. The child should be allowed full freedom to indulge in activity of his choice. Thus the naturalist decry all kinds of external interference and allow full freedom to the child to think and act according to his interests, inclinations, aptitudes and capacities.

Contributions of Naturalism to education

Ø  Naturalism gives importance to the child in the educative process. child has been assigned the role of a ‘hero in the drama of education.

Ø  It advocates that education should be a pleasurable activity for children.

Ø  It maintains that education should lead to the spontaneous self-activity of the child. According to naturalism, methods of instruction must be inductive to make teaching  effective, inspirational and attractive.

Ø  Naturalism in education draws our attention to the aesthetic aspect of surroundings. New types of schools and new movements came into being as a result of naturalism. Froebel’s Kindergarten, the Montessori method, Tagore’s Shanti Niketan are representatives of this movement.

 

 

3. Pragmatism and Education

Pragmatism is primarily viewed as a twentieth century philosophy developed     by Americans, its roots can be traced back to British, European and ancient Greek philosophic traditions. One important element of this tradition is the developing worldview brought about by the “scientific revolution”. The questioning attitudes fostered by the Enlightenment and the development of a more naturalistic humanism has been outgrowth of this movement. The background of pragmatism can be found in the works of such figures as Francis Bacon, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Charles Darwin. But the philosophical elements that give pragmatism a consistency and system as a philosophy in its own right are primarily the contributions of Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey

Etymologically the word Pragmatism is derived Greek word ‘Pragma’ which means activity or the work done. Some other scholars think that it has been derived from the Greek word ‘Pragmatikos’ which means practicability or utility. Thus, this ideology gives great importance to activity, practicability and utility. Pragmatism is also known as Experimentalism. It is called experimentalism because Pragmatists believe experiments as the only criterion of truth. Pragmatist firmly hold that first the activity or experiments is done and then on the basis of results principles or ideas are derived.

According to pragmatism the test of the truth of a proposition is its practical utility; the purpose of thought is to guide action; and the effect of an idea is more important than its origin

Fundamental principles

1)     Changing nature of truth - Truth is not absolute and immutable and objective. According to William “truth does not belong to an idea as some property adhering to it, for it is found in acting on ideas, in the consequence of ideas. Truth is not always objective; it is found in concrete individuality”. He called upon thinkers to concentrate on experience in lieu of essence, abstractions and universals. There is no truth, Reality, or absolute but as his study of experience revealed to him, the universe is open-ended, pluralistic and in the process.

2)     Opposition to fixed ideals and values - According to pragmatism, ideas and values of life are not predetermined and fixed. Pragmatists firmly hold that values and ideals of life are human-made and they change according to changes in circumstances, time and place.

3)     Truth of an idea depends on its workability - Pragmatists hold that an idea is true if it ‘works’. William James viewed the truth of an idea in terms of that ideas “workability”. Dewey sought to clarify ideas in terms of their consequence in experience.

4)     Principle of utility - Pragmatism is a utilitarian ideology which holds that the reality of a principle lies in its utility. Any idea or thing which is useful to us, is proper and right. In the words of William James-”it is true because it is useful. 5)

5)     Importance of activity - Pragmatism lays great emphasis on activity rather than on ideas. Pragmatist hold the view that ideas are born out of activities. Human is an active being. He learns by his activities which he is always engaged in on his long path of life.

6)     Faith in pluralism - According to pragmatism experience is the test of truth. Those ideals or values, which are testified by experience, are true and real. As such, pragmatic truths are many. Human beings experience will prove the validity of an idea or thing to be real and true. According to Rusk “pragmatism sees no necessity for seeking one fundamental principle of explanation. It is quite content to admit several principles and accordingly pluralistic”.

7)     Faith in Flexibility - Pragmatism firmly believes that nothing is fixed in this world. Every thing grows, changes and develops. Human being encounters various problems in this life .To find solutions to these problems, he employs all his mental faculties, learns from all his experiments and experiences.

8)     Emphasis on social and democratic values - Pragmatist holds that human is a social being. He is born in society and all his development takes place in and through society. Hence, pragmatism upholds social and democratic attitude and values.

9)     Opposition to social customs and traditions - Pragmatism is deadly against customs, traditions, restrictions and taboos. It believes in the reality of life. Hence it does not concern itself with things which confuses and often mislead human intelligence. It gives great importance to human intelligence and mental capacity that brings about harmonious and progressive adjustment with environment, which result in human welfare and happiness.

10. Faith in the Present - Pragmatism does not stick to the past They are concerned more with the problems of today, than with the problems of ‘yesterdays’ and ‘tomorrows’.

Characteristics of pragmatic education

1)      Education as life

Pragmatists firmly believe that old and traditional education is dead and lifeless. It provides to the child cooked up knowledge, which dulls his spirit of investigation and makes him a passive recipient without any dynamism and push. Real knowledge can be gained only by activity, experiments and real life experience. Thus to develop the child fully it is greatly essential to provide him opportunities to participate in more and more activities and experiments so that he creates his own values and leads a better, richer and happier life.

2)      Education as growth

For Dewey the aim of education is growth “since growth is the characteristics of life, education is all one with growing; it has no end beyond itself.” For Dewey growth is an enlargement of the capacity to learn from experience and to direct future experiments in meaningful way.

3)      Education as continuous reconstruction of experience

Pragmatist emphasize that real knowledge is gained by experiments and experience conducted by child himself. One experience leads to another and then to many others. Thus the child himself widens the area of knowledge gradually. These experiences transform the behavior patterns of the child, which in turn structure other experiences. Thus the process of reconstruction of experience goes on continually which leads to adjustments and developments of personality. thus according to John Dewey “the educational process is one of continual reorganizing, reconstructing and transforming”

4)      Education as a social necessity

Dewey and the pragmatist believed that education is a necessity of life. It renews people so that they are able to face the problems encountered by their interactions with the environment. Civilized society exist, Dewey pointed out, because education is transmitted from generation to generation, occurring by means of the communication of habits, activities thoughts and feelings from older to the younger. Without this social life cannot survive.

Pragmatism and Aims of education

According to Dewey educational aims should grow out of existing conditions. Dewey thought people-parents, students and citizens –are the ones who have educational aims, and not the process of education. For Dewey the aim of education is growth “since growth is characteristics of life, education is all one with growing; it has no end beyond itself.” Sidney Hook maintains that education for growth goes together with education for the democratic society. In fact, the ideals of democratic society establish the direction in which growth should occur: the growth should support and develop the ideals of the democratic society.

Pragmatism and methods of education

Pragmatic educators prefer methods that are flexible and capable of being used in a variety of ways. For pragmatist learning is the process of social interaction. Pragmatism gives central place to the taught. The children are given “the sense of reality in the school, making schools into workshops, laboratories, and inspiring educational experimental places”.

a)     Learning by doing - Pragmatist hold that “all learning must come as a byproduct of action”. Activity is the basis of their teaching and they prefer self- activity in the context of cooperative activity. According to them action leads to knowledge. By doing we come to know. Through learning by doing, the hands , the eyes, the ears, and in fact the whole body becomes source of information.

b)     Experimental method - The concept of experiment is basic to pragmatic philosophy. The fact that Dewey called his school at Chicago the “Laboratory school” illustrates his view that education is by its very nature experimental. Pragmatist holds that in the final analysis education is a process of experimentation because there are always new things to learn and different things to experience. Experimental method recognizes that there are no fixed or absolute conclusions; consequently, pragmatic education is really “Discovery” education. Even the teacher does not always know what specific conclusions students will draw from their enquiry, although general possibilities may be known.

c)     Project Method - One of the approaches suggested by such pragmatic educators as Kilpatrick is the “project approach” to learning which involves a “whole hearted purposeful activity undertaken in a social environment”. In this method the material of education is related to a problematic situation, which makes the individual react, inducing him to self-activity and leading him to discovery and skill development. The project method is democratic, child centered and synthesizes social, utilitarian and ethical goals of education.

d)     Problem solving method - Dewey proposed problem-solving method of learning. He pointed out the need to concentrate on real life problems and the ways of solving these problems. A problem is a felt difficulty. We should define the problem, formulate possible solutions, examine and evaluate possible solutions and accept or reject solutions.

Pragmatism and curriculum

Pragmatist rejected the tendency of traditional approaches to curriculum where knowledge is separated from experience and is fragmented or compartmentalized. They do not wish the curriculum to be static and divorced from the needs of the pupils and out of touch with the life of the world outside the walls of school. While deciding the subjects of curriculum they wish that the nature of the child, his interest and interest of the child hinge round four aspects (1) interest in conversation or communication (2) interest in enquiry or finding out things (3) interest in construction or making out things (4) interest in artistic expression. The pragmatist wishes that the children should be given the knowledge and skills, which satisfy these interests. In the field of curriculum development, the following principles have been prescribed by pragmatist. (a) Principle of utility (b) Principle of interest (3) Principle of experience(4) Principle of integration

Pragmatism and teacher

A teacher according to pragmatist should be an experimentalist, a trial and error person. While teaching he gives the techniques rather than whole knowledge, always motivating the class to search knowledge for themselves. He should be “a student of child’s mind, sensitive to the kinds of experience of children at different ages, and imaginative in his efforts to involve the children in the excitement of scientific enquiry. Like Socrates the teacher should wish his pupils to think and act for themselves, to do rather than to repeat. He suggests and stimulates. He should be a friend, philosopher and guide for children.

 

Pragmatism and Discipline

Pragmatism condemns enforced discipline and advocates social discipline based on child’s interest, activities and sense of social responsibility. According to John Dewey discipline is a sort of mental state in the formation of which social conditions play a major role. This mental condition will infuse in him seriousness, sincerity and consideration for others. The school should provide purposeful and conducive experience to the child in a free and congenial atmosphere so that he develops a sense of social responsibility and becomes a true citizen in the real sense of the term.

Pragmatism and school

John Dewey maintains that school is a miniature of society where a child gets real experiences to act and behave according to his interest, aptitudes and capacities. Scholl should a community center of various activities and experiences.

Critique of pragmatism in education

Critics have often attacked pragmatism for its relative and situational approach to life problems. They maintain that pragmatism rejects traditional values in religion, ethics and society and tends towards values that are uncertain, changeable and impermanent. The pragmatist emphasis upon the physical and mundane world may sometimes lead to neglect of cultural ideals, which is not acceptable in the field of education.

 

4. Realism in Education

According to realism, the physical world is real, believes in the laws of nature - reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality is the world of physical objects- By using reason, it is possible to have some knowledge of these objects. Knowledge about these objects, the laws that govern them and their relationships to each other is the most reliable guide to human conduct. Truth is objective and should correspond to the objective reality- knowledge is obtained through scientific method (observation, induction). Aristotle & John Locke are the main exponents.

Aims of education

·        to aid human beings

·        to attain happiness by actualizing their potentiality

·        to excellence

·        to its fullest cultivation of human rationality through the study of organized bodies    of knowledge

Curriculum

The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world, particularly science and mathematics. In curriculum construction they follow the principle of “appropriate pedagogical ordering of the subject matter according to the readiness, maturation, and previous learning of the student”.

Methods of teaching

The Realist teacher should command a variety of methods that may include lecture, discussion, or experiment. The teacher should use the method appropriate to the learners background and situation. Realists follow teaching through direct experience, use of audio-visual methods, travel, field study and case study methods.

Role of the teacher

Realist teachers encourage students to draw their observations and conclusions from the world around them, rather than confining themselves to an analysis of their own ideas. The modern role of a teacher—that of an  organizer, systematizer, and promoter of critical thinking—is largely founded  on realist principles. Realist educators are objective, believing in a systematic approach to order and classified knowledge, building on previously learned information.

Discipline- Self discipline

 

5. Humanism and Education

 Basic tenets

·        Importance of human begins

·        Ultimate faith in humankind

·        Human beings possess genuine freedom of creative choice and action, the  power of solving their own problems

·        Opposition to all theories of universal determinism, fatalism, or predestination

·        Importance of choice and control over one’s life

·        Human being as shapers of their own destiny.

·        Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow and Erich Fromm are the major exponents.

Aims of education

·        Holistic development

·        Development of the person as a whole

·        Development of intellectual, emotional, social, physical, artistic, creative and spiritual potentials. Curriculum should be based on the principles of happiness, freedom, and progress

·        Economic, cultural, and ethical development of all humankind, irrespective of nation, race, or religion

Curriculum should promote genuine altruism, the spirit of cosmopolitanism, of international friendship, and of the essential interconnectedness of humans -“there is only one subject-matter for education, and that is Life in all its manifestations.”

Methods of teaching

·        Learning by doing

·        experimental method

·        project method

·        problem solving method

·        field experience

Role of teacher

·        Facilitator

·        duties of scaffolding

·        mentoring and coaching

·        liberates their students from the fetters of ignorance, prejudice, alienation, and false-consciousness,

·        empowers them to actualize their human potentialities and lead autonomous,  and fulfilling human lives.

Discipline - Discipline through engagement with life experiences

 

6. Importance of Eclectic Approach

Eclecticism is considered as the harmonious blend of diverse philosophies to form a new philosophy. It is putting together of viewpoints from different philosophies to form comprehensive approach. Since philosophy gives is a vision and orientation to human beings, they could modify, enlarge their vision taking what is relent for them from the different schools of philosophies thus formulating their own philosophies. More over every teacher should have her/his philosophies of education which is the amalgam of different schools of philosophies.

Need for Eclectic approach- no school/approach of philosophy is perfect or comprehensive but may have positive aspects. Eclectic approach helps one to form a more dynamic, suitable and emancipatory attitude to life and education.

 

1.5 Conceptual Analysis of Knowledge and Information

Knowledge is information processed by humans and put together contextually.  In the western tradition knowledge is viewed as rationally justified true beliefs.

Different facets of knowledge (Sources of Knowledge)

·        Local and universal, concrete and abstract, contextual and textual.

·        Knowledge through nature

·        Experiential Knowledge, a form of knowledge that can only be obtained through experience. For example, the knowledge of what it is like to see colours, which cannot be explained to a person born blind.

·        Experimental Knowledge is based on or derived from experience, or empirical evidences.

·        Reasoned or Logical Knowledge is knowledge of the truths and principles of deductive logic.

·        Intuitive Knowledge is the knowledge that is acquired without inference and/or the use of reason. It comes from within by looking inside or contemplation.

·        Revealed Knowledge, facts that are simply apparent

Classification of Knowledge

Aesthetic knowledge, Historical, Geographical, mathematical, ethical, philosophical, physical science, religious knowledge etc

Knowledge in different schools of philosophy

For idealist the ultimate knowledge is spiritual and derived through reasoning, introspection, meditation etc. They give importance to a-prior knowledge, pre- existing knowledge. Plato, an idealist, proposes the concept of reminiscence or recollection by which human beings recall all the truths that are latently and unconsciously present in their minds. Idealist would regard pupil as 'in the process of becoming' and education as the means to their fullest development. Education would be a constant training of body, will and mind.

For realists the ultimate reality is external and can be subjected to sense perception. They accept only a-posteriori knowledge, i.e. knowledge derived through experience. Learning would be regarded as true and effective if pupil's impressions correspond to outer reality. Through curriculum only that knowledge would be imparted which was already known to the teacher and the text-book writer. All new inventions would tend to be regarded as mere discoveries. More emphasis would be laid on natural sciences and knowledge of the external world.

For pragmatist reality is multifaceted and pluralistic. For them knowledge is derived from different activities and the only genuine knowledge would be knowledge-in-action. In education they give importance to activity methods, like projects, experiments, problem-solving etc.

For humanist knowledge is a tool for living. Knowledge should improve the life conditions of human being, create a humane and an authentic society to live in.

 

Information

Information is usually construed as being narrower in scope than knowledge; it often implies a collection of facts and data. Information applies to facts told, read, or communicated that may be unorganized and even unrelated. It provides answers to ‘who, what, where, and when’ questions. It is important to know that without information, we will not have knowledge. Information needs signals to encode and decode.

Knowledge is the broadest: it includes facts and ideas, understanding, and the totality of what is known. Knowledge is an organized body of information, or the comprehension and understanding consequent on having acquired and organized a body of facts.

Ø  Information alone is not sufficient for prediction, but knowledge can be used for prediction

Ø  Information is static in nature, but knowledge is dynamic

Ø  Data-> Information -> knowledge

Information vs knowledge table

Basis of comparison	Information	Knowledge
Meaning	Information is organized data about someone, or something obtained from various sources such as television, internet etc. So, information is facts or data being systematically presented in each context.	Knowledge refers to the awareness or comprehension of a person’s education or experience gained on the subject. It refers to the relevant and objective information gained through experience.
Transfer	Information can be easily transferred through different means. It can be transferred through both verbal and nonverbal signals.	It is difficult to transfer knowledge as it require learning and efforts on the part of the receiver.
Prediction	Information alone is not sufficient to generalize or making predictions about someone or something.	Knowledge can be used to make predictions or make influences.
Scope	Information has narrow scope. This is because every information is not necessarily a knowledge.	Knowledge has wider scope. This is because all knowledge is information.
Oriented	Information is theory oriented.	Knowledge is experience oriented as it is derived through experiences.
Nature	Information is static in nature	Knowledge is dynamic in nature
What is it	Information is a refined form of data which is helpful to understand the meaning of something.	Knowledge is relevant information with the help of which conclusions can be drawn and generalizations can be made.
Combination of	Information is combination of data and context	Knowledge is combination of information, experience and intuition.

 

MODULE 2 PAEDOCENTRIC EDUCATION

2.1. Concept of Paedocentric Education

                In this concept child is at the focal point of education. All other things such as the teacher, the text books, the curriculum and the school are in the background. Sir John Adams called this concept as Paedocentric education. The teacher’s role is that of an interested observer and at best that of a guide when needed

·        Also known as child-centered education

·        Pioneer-Rousseau (The new Heloise, Emile)

·        Tagore, Froebel, Pestalozzi and Montessori given emphasis

·        Free development of child in his interest and motives rather than any  artificial effort made on him by a teacher

Sources of Paedocentric Education

·        3 sources-nature, men, things:

1.     Education from nature-internal development of organs and faculties  of the child. Spontaneous development of the innate disposition of the child

2.     Education from men- emphasis on the social aspect

3.     Education from things-importance of physical environment

Aims of Paedocentric Education

1.     Education for complete living- leading to a balanced, harmonious, useful     and natural life

2.     Child should not be considered as miniature adult

3.     Liberal cultivation of innate endowment (cultivation of innate abilities)

Philosophical base

·        Education should not be an artificial procedure

·        Natural, harmonious and progressive development of human being

·        Process of individual development

·        Love and respect for the child

·        Play and pleasure as the basis of education

·        All round development

·        In a free environment a child can learn, self-disciplined and develop his personality fully.

School and Class room

·        Place of recreation for children

·        Freedom and opportunity to do what they like

·        Students take the help of teachers

·        The school makes effort to arrange subject related to real life.

POSITION OF CHILD

·        central figure and pivotal point of education

·        Student should take initiative for learning

·        It prepares students for active participation

ROLE AND DUTIES OF TEACHER

·        Friend, philosopher and guide

·        Continuous learner, psychologist, appreciate individuality of every child

Characteristics

1.     Freedom- To learn and create

2.     Self-activities- plays, games, songs, occupations

3.     Process of spontaneous development

4.     development of interest and needs- physical, social, moral and spiritual development

5.     Education based on experience- experience oriented to meet the needs   of child.

It is the Ideal system to manifest the latent talents of the child

 

2.2. Activity Centered Education-John Dewey

John Dewey (1859-1952)

·        American philosopher, psychologist, educationist

·        Activity-centered education is new education

·        Learning by doing- project method, Dalton plan, and problem-solving method

·        He founded ‘University Laboratory School’ in Chicago, later became ‘Dewey School’

·        Books-Democracy and Education, Experience and Education

Activity Centered Education-Meaning

·        ‘Education is the process of reconstruction or reconstitution of experience’ - Dewey

·        Educational process has 2 sides-psychological and sociological

·        Child’s instincts and powers-psychological

·        Educated as a social individual-organic relationship between individual and society

·        Interact with environment in order to adapt and learn

·        Learning on the needs and interests of the child

·        Subject matter presented through activities, knowledge is the result of purposeful activities

·        Activity is the medium of imparting knowledge, teaching skills and developing attitudes

Principle of activity centered education

Experience arises from the interaction of two principles - continuity and interaction

Role of Teacher

·        Facilitator

·        observe the interest of students

·        helps to develop problem-solving skills

Merits

·        Balanced development

·        Development of social virtues

·        Motivation

·        develop initiative,

·        Preparation for life,

·        Co-operation

Philosophy of education-Dewey

1.        Experimental education: reflective inquiry is the central pillar for education- Dewey

Education as a problem-solving process and we learn by doing

2.        Education and society: Education should be according to the need of the society

3.        Progressive education: Dewey –father of progressive education.

              Progressive learning is a concept in which students draw connections in their learning to real life and everyday experiences with the use of new techniques of advancement. It is a Pluralistic Phenomenon-industrial training, agricultural education, social education, new techniques of instruction.

Aims of education

·     To reform and reconstruct the society

·     Enable to adjust with the environment

·     Develop fully according to his interest, abilities and needs

·     Social efficiency

·     Develop democratic values

·     Education for life

·     To make self-reliant

Curriculum

·     Must be child-centered

·     Reflect social life and social activities

·     Principle of progressive organization of knowledge

·     Experience should be flexible and changeable

·     Psychological aspect-abilities and interest of child

·     Social aspect-make socially efficient and democratic

Methods of Teaching

·        Learning by doing

·        Individual approach

·        Project method

·        Integration

·        Collective approach

ROLE OF TEACHER - Create an environment for the development of child’s  social personality

Discipline - self discipline by collective activities

Impact of Dewey’s idea on Modern Education

·        Impact on aims of education- inculcation of democratic values and social responsibilities are important goals of education today. Dewey strongly insisted this at that time.

·        Impact on Curriculum- His idea of manual skill subjects and curriculum based on changing needs of society are included in today’s curriculum and revised every five years.

·        Educational Methods-child’s own experience, vary according to the interest and needs  of every child now get importance

·        Impact on Discipline- self-discipline, democratic ideals

·        Universal education- Dewey’s concept of universal education now leads to universal and compulsory education. For him education as a social necessity, now it feels.

 

2.3 CRITICAL PEDAGOGY – PAULO FRIERE

Dialogue- Paulo Friere (1921-1997)

·        Brazilian educationist and philosopher

·        Influential and radical educationist of 20th cen.

·        Popularized informal and non-formal methods of education

·        Introduced       critical      pedagogy,       issue      based       learning,       and      social constructivism

·        Books-Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Education for Critical consciousness,           Pedagogy of Hope, Pedagogy of freedom, The politics of freedom

 

Educational Views

·        Education is a process of dialogue between teacher and learner

·        Dialogical method- co-operation, acceptance and trust between teachers and learners

·        He criticized existing system of education as ‘banking type’ of education

·        Passive learners receive deposits of pre-selected, readymade knowledge

·        Learner’s mind is seen as empty vessel

·        Perpetuating domination and oppression Educational views

·        He proposed libratory education

·        Tool for liberation from oppression

·        Encourages learners to challenge and change the world

·        Dialogical method-communion between participants, educator and educand educate each other

Characteristics of Freire’s Pedagogy

·        Education is for liberation-critical perception of their own social reality

·        Education      is     for     conscientization-becoming             aware      of    oppressive d imensions of culture

·        Problem posing education-starts from life situation

·        Dialogue as a pedagogical tool

·        Egalitarian teacher student relationship

Freire’s contributions

·        Education oriented towards the transformation of the society

·        His pedagogy starts from a deep love for poor and oppressed people

·        Made education as an exchanging of thoughts and feelings between participants in dialogue

·        His pedagogy influenced millions of teachers

·        Influenced progressive educators

·        Impact upon peace education, adult education, formal education, critical pedagogy

·        Father of critical pedagogy

 

(below two are Not in syllabus but asked in question paper)

Basic education - Gandhiji

·        Free and compulsory education for all children

·        Craft centered education

·        Self-supporting

·        Medium of instruction-mother tongue

·        Correlation

·        Non-violence, and Citizenship training

Discovery Learning- Plato

Plato (427-347B.C) Athens, Idealist philosopher, opened a school called Academy

·        Dialectical method, a collective exercise

·        Publications: 1. The Republic, 2. The Laws, 3. Protogoras, 4. Symposium

Discovery learning

·        Play method at elementary level, learn by doing

·        Higher level, reason would be trained in the process of thinking and abstracting

·        Wanted motivation and interest in learning

·        Importance to nursery education-helps to build his moral character

·        ‘The most important part of education is proper training in the nursery’

·        Question –answer method, stimulates the brain, can bring new ideas to life

·        dialectic      method       provides     an     opportunity        for     debate       of    issues, exploration of ideas and use of higher thinking skills

·        Gymnastics for body, music for soul

·        Musical      education       so    essential,       causes      rhythm      and     harmony       to  penetrate most intimately to soul

·        Making the man beautiful-minded

·        Total development of man-mind, body and soul

·        Storytelling and Literature-main tool for formation of character

·        Provide models for children to imitate

·        Play-character will be formed while he plays