EDU 204.20 PEDAGOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF COMMERCE

 

204.20 PEDAGOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF COMMERCE

Module 1 – Psychological Dimension of Commerce Teaching

 

1.1 Behaviorism- Implications

Behaviorism or the behavioral learning theory is a popular concept that focuses on how students learn. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned from the environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on behavior. A common example of behaviorism is positive reinforcement. A student gets a small treat if they get 100% on their spelling test.

Behaviorism started as a reaction against introspective psychology in the 19th century, which relied heavily on first-person accounts. J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner rejected introspective methods as being subjective and unquantifiable. These psychologists wanted to focus on observable, quantifiable events and behaviors. They said that science should take into account only observable indicators. They helped bring psychology into higher relevance by showing that it could be accurately measured and understood, and it wasn’t just based off opinions.

Watson and Skinner believed that if they were given a group of infants, the way they were raised and the environment they put them in would be the ultimate determining factor for how they acted, not their parents or their genetics.

Pavlov’s Dog is a popular behaviorism experiment (Classical conditioning). A group of dogs would hear a bell ring and then they would be given food. After enough time, when the bell would ring the dogs would salivate, expecting the food before they even saw it. This is exactly what behaviorism argues—that the things we experience and our environment are the drivers of how we act. 

The stimulus-response sequence is a key element of understanding behaviorism. A stimulus is given, for example a bell rings, and the response is what happens next, a dog salivates or a pellet of food is given. Behavioral learning theory argues that even complex actions can be broken down into the stimulus-response. 

Positive reinforcement is key in the behavioral learning theory. Without positive reinforcement, students will quickly abandon their responses because they don’t appear to be working. For example, if students are supposed to get a sticker every time, they get an A on a test, and then teachers stop giving that positive reinforcement, less students may get A’s on their tests, because the behavior isn’t connected to a reward for them. 

Repetition and positive reinforcement go hand-in-hand with the behavioral learning theory. Teachers often work to strike the right balance of repeating the situation and having the positive reinforcement come to show students why they should continue that behavior. 

Motivation plays an important role in behavioral learning. Positive and negative reinforcement can be motivators for students. For example, a student who receives praise for a good test score is much more likely to learn the answers effectively than a student who receives no praise for a good test score.

Educational Implications of Behaviorism

Teachers can implement behavioral learning strategy techniques in their classroom in many ways, including:

·         Principles of classical conditioning can be used for developing good habits in children such as cleanliness, respect for elders, punctuality etc. It also can be used for breaking anxiety, fear and phobias.

·         The principle of operant conditioning may be successfully applied in the classroom for the modification of undesirable behaviour of maladjusted children

·         Drills: Teachers may practice skills using drill patterns to help students see the repetition and reinforcement that behavioral learning theory uses.

·      Question and answer: Teachers can use a question as a stimulus and answer as a response, gradually getting harder with questions to help students.

·      Guided practice: Teachers can be directly involved in helping students go through problems to give them the reinforcement and behavior demonstration you want them to follow.

·      Regular review: Reviews are important to behavioral learning theory. Going back over material and giving positive reinforcement will help students retain information much better.

·      Positive reinforcement: Behaviorist classrooms utilize positive reinforcement regularly. This can be in the form of verbal reinforcement and praise, reward systems, added privileges, and more. 

1.2. Constructivism, Cognitive and social - implications

1.2.1 Constructivism

Constructivism is an important learning theory that educators use to help their students learn. Constructivism is based on the idea that people actively construct or make their own knowledge, and that reality is determined by your experiences as a learner. Basically, learners use their previous knowledge as a foundation and build on it with new things that they learn. So, everyone's individual experiences make their learning unique to them.

Principles of Constructivism?

·                     Knowledge is constructed. This is the basic principle, meaning that knowledge is built upon other knowledge. Students take pieces and put them together in their own unique way, building something different than what another student will build. The student’s previous knowledge, experiences, beliefs, and insights are all important foundations for their continued learning. 

·                     People learn to learn, as they learn. Learning involves constructing meaning and systems of meaning. For example, if a student is learning the chronology of dates for a series of historical events, at the same time they are learning the meaning of chronology.

·                     Learning is an active process. Learning involves sensory input to construct meaning.

·                     Learning is a social activity. Learning is directly associated to our connection with other people. Our teachers, our family, or peers, and our acquaintances impact our learning.

·                     Learning is contextual. Students don’t learn isolated facts and theories separate from the rest of our lives—we learn in ways connected to things we already know, what we believe, and more.

·                     Knowledge is personal. Because constructivism is based on your own experiences and beliefs, knowledge becomes a personal affair. Each person will have their own prior knowledge and experiences to bring to the table. So, the way and things people learn and gain from education will all be very different. 

·                     Learning exists in the mind. Hands-on experiences and physical actions are necessary for learning, but those elements aren’t enough. Engaging the mind is key to successful learning. Learning needs to involve activities for the minds, not just our hands. Mental experiences are needed for retaining knowledge.

·                     Motivation is key to learning. Students are unable to learn if they are unmotivated.

What are the three main Types of Constructivism?

Cognitive constructivism based on the work of Jean Piaget, Social constructivism based on the work of Lev Vygotsky, and Radical constructivism.

1. Cognitive. Cognitive constructivism focuses on the idea that learning should be related to the learner’s stage of cognitive development. These methods work to help students in learning new information by connecting it to things they already know, enabling them to make modifications in their existing intelligence to accommodate the new information. Cognitive constructivism comes from the work of Jean Piaget and his research on cognitive development in children. 

2. Social. Social constructivism focuses on the collaborative nature of learning. Knowledge develops from how people interact with each other, their culture, and society at large. Students rely on others to help create their building blocks, and learning from others helps them construct their own knowledge and reality. Social constructivism comes from Lev Vygotsky, and is closely connected to cognitive constructivism with the added element of societal and peer influence.

3. Radical. Radical constructivism is very different from cognitive and social constructivism. It focuses on the idea that learners and the knowledge they construct tell us nothing real, only help us function in our environment. The overall idea is that knowledge is invented, not discovered. The things we bring to the table make it impossible for us to have truth, only interpretations of knowledge. This theory was developed by Ernst von Glaser Feld in 1974. 

Constructivism in Education

It’s important to understand how teachers can apply constructivism inside their classroom to create a unique learning environment for students.

1. In constructivist classrooms, the teacher has a role to create a collaborative environment where students are actively involved in their own learning.

2. Teachers are more facilitators of learning than actual instructors. Teachers must work to understand the pre-existing conceptions and understanding of students, then work to incorporate knowledge within those areas. Teachers will also need to adjust their teaching to match the learner’s level of understanding. 

3. Constructivist classrooms rely on four key areas to be successful:

·                     Shared knowledge between teachers and students.

·                     Shared authority between teachers and students.

·                     Teachers act as a guide or facilitator.

·                     Learning groups consist of small numbers of students.

Constructivist classrooms are often very different from normal classrooms in many ways. Constructivist classrooms focus on student questions and interests, they build on what students already know, they focus on interactive learning and are student-centered, teachers have a dialogue with students to help them construct their own knowledge, they root in negotiation, and students work primarily in groups. Constructivist classrooms often have teachers who do small group work, collaborative and interactive activities, and open dialogues about what students need in order to find success.

1.2.2. Cognitive Constructivism

It states knowledge is something that is actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive development. Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual framework to accommodate that information.

Cognitive Constructivism by Piaget

According to Piaget, knowledge is not merely transmitted verbally but must be constructed and reconstructed by the learner. He believed that learning involves certain processes. The intellectual growth involves three fundamental processes.

 Assimilation

 Accommodation and

 Equilibration

In assimilation, the learner transforms incoming information so that it fits within his existing schemes or thought patterns (incorporation of new events into preexisting Cognitive structures). In accommodation, the learner adapts his thought patterns to include incoming information (modification of existing cognitive Structures to hold the new information). This dual process, assimilation-accommodation, enables the child to form schema. Equilibration involves the person striking a balance between himself and the environment, between assimilation and accommodation. When a child experiences a new event, disequilibrium sets in until he is able to assimilate and accommodate the new information and thus attain equilibrium. There are many types of equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation that vary with the levels of development and the problems to be solved. For Piaget, equilibration is the Major factor in explaining why some children advance more quickly in the development of logical intelligence than do others.

Piaget discovered that children think and reason differently at different periods in their lives. Children who are at certain stage cannot be taught the concepts of a higher stage. The four stages if cognitive development identified by Piaget are:

 

1. Sensori-motor stage (Birth-2 yrs): The important accomplishments are:

·                     Differentiates self from objects

·                     Recognizes self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally: e.g. shakes a rattle to make a noise

·                     Achieves object permanence: realizes that things continue to exis! even when no longer present to the sense.

2. Pre-operational (2-7 years): The important accomplishments are:

·         Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words

·         Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others

·         Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour

3.concrete operational stage (7-11 years): The important accomplishments are.

·         Can think logically about objects and events

·         Achieves conservation of number, mass, and weight

·         Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series along a single dimension such as size.

4. Formal operational stage (12-15 years): The important accomplishments are:

·         Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically

·         Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems

Implications for Education

1. The school curriculum should be enriched with diverse materials and activities.

2. Allow children to opportunities for assimilation and accommodation

3. Children should have opportunities to communicate with one another, to argue and debate. This way teacher can assess child’s cognitive level, their strength and weakness.

4. Piaget saw teachers as facilitators of knowledge (Guide and stimulate)

5. Allow children to make mistakes and learn from them.

6. Laboratories, workshop and technologies that encourage interactivity by using multimedia

 

1.2.3 Social Constructivism of Vygotsky

The theory of social constructivism is proposed by Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), a Russian psychologist, who applied the Marxist social theory to individual psychology. The social constructivist theory considers learning as a social and communicative process whereby knowledge is shared and understandings are constructed in culturally formed social settings. It emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding. Vygotsky’s social constructivism is based on the following four basic principles:

a) Children construct their knowledge

b) Development cannot be separated from its social context

c) Learning can lead to development

d) Language plays a central role in mental development

The important components of the social constructivist theory proposed by Vygotsky are discussed under different sub-heads:

1. Construction of knowledge occurs only when the learner interacts in a social context: (interactions with surrounding culture and a more knowledgeable person such as parents, teachers and more competent peers) ' lead to constant changes in a child’s thought and behavior.

2. Learning occurs through the internalization of a socially negotiated mental function:

3. Language is a tool for understanding outer world and constructing knowledge.

4. Intentional learning is limited to the zone of proximal development (ZPD). It is the difference between the child’s capacity to solve problems on his own, and his capacity to solve them with assistance. In other words, ZPD is the gap between the actual development and potential development. The full development during the ZPD depends upon full social interaction and the more the child takes advantages of an adult’s assistance, the broader is its ‘Zone of Proximal Development’.

Educational Implications

1. The curriculum should be designed to emphasize interaction between learners and learning tasks.

2. Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes the need of students to construct their own understanding of each concept, so that the primary role of teacher is to create social situations for students that will foster the construction of knowledge.

3. All the components of the educational process should be framed in tune with the culture of the society.

4. Social constructivism considers the teacher as a co-learner.

5. Social constructivism considers scaffolding (supporting/helping) as an effective form of teaching. For this to achieve, the teacher should continually adjust the level of his help in response to the learner’s level of performance.

6. The theory advices peer instruction, guided instruction, cooperative learning, social negotiation and collaborative learning as specialized methods of teaching and learning.

7. The physical classroom, based on Vygotsky’s theory, would provide clustered desks or tables and work space for peer instruction, collaboration (team-work), and small group instruction.

8. Social constructivist method of teaching necessitates the design of learning materials in such a way to encourage student interaction and collaboration.

9. According to Vygotskey, learning is limited to ZPD, the difference between learner’s actual development and his potential development. Hence, the assessment methods must target both the level of actual development and the level of potential development.

10. Two children can differ substantially in the ZPD’s. Therefore, a knowledge of the ZPD will help the teacher to identify each child’s readiness to benefit from instruction.

Difference between Behaviorism and Constructivism

No	Behaviorism	Constructivism
1	Teacher centered education	Learner centered education
2	content oriented	Process oriented
3	emphasizes teaching	Emphasizes Learning
4	Learner as a receiver of Knowledge	Learner with unique abilities
5	Learning as a mechanical process	Learning as a natural process
6	Learning is stimulus-response relationship	Learning as active mental process
7	Learner as empty vessels	Learning with unique abilities
8	Same approach for all age groups	Chang approach based on developmental stages
9	Extrinsic motivation leads to learning	Intrinsic motivation leads to learning
10	Rewards, punishments, reinforcement make learning effective	Problem solving through experiences makes learning effective
11	Learning is behavior modification	Learning is conceptual change & addition
12	Does not consider learner’s mental models	Considers learner’s mental model
13	Importance to product of learning	Importance to process of learning
14	It based on behaviorist theories of learning	Based on cognitive theories
15	Teacher’s role as a trainer	Teacher’s role as a facilitator

 

1.3. THEORIES OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

Theory of Multiple Intelligence (Howard Gardner 1983): Howard Gardner, the American Psychologist proposed a theory that sought to broaden the traditional definition of intelligence which is defined by mental tests. Gardner argued that we do not have one underlying general intelligence, but we have multiple intelligences each being controlled by an independent system in the brain. Gardner has identified eight intelligences, each indicating special strength in a particular area. The theory implies that traditional school education used to neglect a large potential of human by passing judgements about children in terms of the general concept of intelligence and thereby neglecting the special types of abilities in various areas possessed by them.

 “Intelligence is the ability to find and solve problems and create products of value in one’s own culture”. - Howard Gardner. He also suggested the possible addition of a ninth known as "existentialist intelligence." According to him normal humans possess all abilities in various degrees but 2 or 3 components which determines their behavior. The nine different intelligences formulated by the theory of multiple intelligences are briefly discussed below.

1. LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE is the capacity to use words effectively whether orally or in writing.

Characteristics:

* Enjoys saying, hearing and seeing words.

* Likes telling stories.

* Gets motivated by books, records, dramas, and opportunities for writing.

Strategies appropriate for Teaching Linguistic Learner:

* Read out plays, poetry aloud

* Let him write a story for a book a magazine and keep a journal.

* Choral reading.

* Let the learners read passages to one other

* Read a portion and explain what they have read.

2. LOGICAL / MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE is the capacity to use numbers effectively and to reason well.

Characteristics:

·         Enjoys exploring how things are related

·         Likes to understand how things work

·         Like mathematical concepts

·         Enjoys puzzles and manipulative games.

·         Good at critical thinking.

Teaching Logical/Mathematical Learner:

·         Play games that require logical thinking

·         Work with scrambled sentences.

·         Arrange pictures in logical sequences

·         After reading, construct mind map arranging some of the ideas and details.

3. VISUAL / SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE is the ability to perceive the visual - spatial world accurately and perform accordingly and to make transformations upon those perceptions.

Characteristics:

* Remembers things visually

* Likes posters, charts, graphics

*Likes any kind of visual clues.

 * Enjoys drawing.

Teaching visual/Spatial Learner:

·         Study and create maps, diagrams and graphs.

·         Take a survey, put the information in a chart

·         Write words vertically

·         Cut out words from a magazine and use them in a letter.

·         Use pictures to stimulate reading or writing

·         Use crossword puzzles.

4. BODILY / KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE is the expertise in using one’s whole body to express ideas and feelings and facility in using one’s hand to produce or transform things.

Characteristics:

* Like to move, dance, walk, swim etc.

 * Good at sports

* Have good motor skills

* Likes to take things apart and put back together.

Teaching the Bodily/Kinaesthetic Learner:

* Use magnetic letters, letter blocks or letters on index cards to spell words.

*Take a walk while discussing a story

* Use whole arm to write letters in the air

5. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE is the capacity to perceive, discriminate, transform and express musical forms.

Characteristics:

* Like the rhythm and sound of the language

* Likes poems, songs.

* Enjoys humming or singing along with music

Teaching the Musical Learner:

* Use a familiar tune; song or rap beat to teach

* Create a poem with an emphasis on certain sounds for pronunciation.

* Choral reading to work on fluency and intonation.

6. INTER PERSONAL INTELLIGENCE is the ability to perceive and make distinctions in the moods, intentions, motivations and feelings of other people.

Characteristics:

* Likes to develop ideas and learn from other people

* Likes to talk

* Have good social skills

 

Teaching Inter personal Learner:

* Take part in group discussions

* Read a dialogue or play together with peers

* Do team learning / investigating projects

* Set up interview questions and interview peers

* Write notes to one another instead of talking

7. INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE is the ability to sense oneself

Characteristics:

* Has good sense of self

* Likes to think things over

 * Likes independent projects and learning by trial and error

Teaching Intrapersonal Learner:

·         Set aside time to reflect on new ideas and information

·         Encourage journal writing

·         Work on the computer

·         Use brain-storming methods

·         Read inspirational books.

8. NATURALISTIC INTELLIGENCE is the ability to understand the natural world including plants, animals and details of scientific studies related to natural phenomena; to recognise and classify individuals, species and ecological relations; to interact effectively with living creations.

Characteristics:

·         Skill for understanding animal behaviour, needs, characteristics etc. 

·         Works with plants 

·         Knowledge of natural living energy forces

Teaching the Naturalistic Learner:

* Take field trips

* Here speeches on natural phenomena made by Guest speakers

* Keep pets, live corners

* Engage in Science experiments

9. Existential Intelligence

Existential intelligence involves an individual's ability to use collective values and intuition to understand others and the world around them. People who excel in this intelligence typically are able to see the big picture. Characteristics may include:

·      maintain a longer-term outlook

·      take into account the internal and external conductions

·      set a general direction

·      Align resources and inspire others

 

The new approach adopted in line with the viewpoint about the nature and components of human intelligence has to be reflected in the teaching and learning of Commerce also. Providing appropriate learning situation and activities should cater to each component given above. At the same time the fact that all these are interrelated and hence could be considered while handling any learning material should also be considered. The activities should help the learner to foster as many types of intelligence as possible.

F. THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND COMMERCE EDUCATION

Theory of Multiple Intelligence can be very effectively used in a Commerce classroom. Few tips for the application of the various components of MI in Commerce classroom are given in the following table.

Components Of MI	Activities appropriate to Commerce Education
Linguistic/Verbal	Writing stories/narrations regarding various business aspects like, partnership, sole proprietorship, accounting of partnership firms, etc. Explaining how to work out a problem to others. Actively participating in debates, discussions, etc. on various topics of Commerce. Preparing of project reports, assignments, etc. Writing scripts for radio lessons, dramatizations etc.
Bodily/Kinesthetic	Performing in role plays/dramas, etc. Enacting the process of the treatment of goodwill while a partner is retiring from a partnership firm.
Musical Rhythmic intelligence	Learning different aspects related to commerce in a rhythmic manner. Preparing of musical presentations of various topics in commerce
Inter personal	Solving complex problems/tasks together with a group Participating in seminars, discussion, interviews, etc. Describing/explaining a process to others, and clearing their doubts.
Intrapersonal	Developing one's own thinking pattern for solving a problem. Thinking, how to solve a problem in a different way. Linking subject with real life situations, Solving problems/ finding causes according to change in mood.
Naturalistic	Studying the role of a business on environmental pollution.

 

SCOPE OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE IN ACCOUNTANCY

Topic: Accounting Equations

Instructional Activities	Scope involved in components of Multiple Intelligence
An accounting transaction is given by the teacher to students together with a draft balance sheet of a joint stock company. The transaction is: Ram commence a business with a cash worth 5,00,000 /- Teacher motivates students to identify the following items from the given balance sheet and analyse its effects, a. Assets - current and fixed b. Liabilities c. Capital Teacher creates a brain storming session to reach students about the relationship of asset, capital and liabilities as ASSETS = CAPITAL + LIABILITIES	Logical/Mathematical Intelligence
Teacher provides additional transactions relating to business concerns and asks them to analyse each transaction by forming an equation through small group discussion.	Interpersonal Intelligence
“Teacher creates business situations represent the equation of accounting by exhibiting a model of accounting representing “Duality Concept of Accounting”.	Visual/Spatial intelligence
Students provides some paper cut-outs each represents stock, sundry debtors, sundry creditors, bills payable, bills receivable, profit, capital, loan, interest, furniture and fittings, building. Also provides a model of Common Balance as instructional support for students.	Bodily Kinesthetic intelligence
Asks each student to fix the assets and liabilities systematically and logically to make it as equal like common balance.	Logical/Mathematical intelligence
Teacher provides a follow up activity: Visit a sole trading concern, collect 10 transactions and analyse it effects by applying accounting equations and present a summary accordingly	Intrapersonal intelligence   Interpersonal intelligence

 

MODULE 2: PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION

2.1Meaning, Need and Importance of Lesson Planning

            Planning is very important in instruction as in any enterprise. Adopting a top-down planning strategy, there are three levels to the planning of instruction. The plan of instruction for a particular academic year of a particular subject is decided at the beginning of the year. There are several factors that are to be considered in the process of planning.

Goods define lesson plan as: “Outline of the important points of a lesson arranged in the order in which they are to be presented to students by the teacher.” For a successful and effective teaching planning is the first and the most important step. The teacher should know beforehand what to teach and how to teach. S/he should have the clear aim of the lesson before her/him and should plan accordingly. S/he should know how s/he should introduce and present the lesson and the aids s/he will make use of. S/he should also know how to evaluate the lesson in  the light of the aim set.

IMPORTANCE OF LESSON PLANNING

1.      It keeps the teacher to be systematic and orderly in the treatment of the subject matter.

2.      Teacher proceeds on well-thought of and definite lines and does not follow haphazard and thoughtless teaching.

3.      The teacher sets forth with some definite aims in view of students’ interest, attitudes, etc., through certain activities or some other means.

4.      Planning a lesson give confidence and self-reliance to the teacher which is of great value for successful teaching.

5.      It saves time.

6.      Because the lesson is correlated with the social and physical environments of the students, their interest is maintained throughout the lesson.

Good Planning….

·           Keeps the teacher and students on the track

·           Achieves the objectives

·           Helps the teacher to avoid unpleasant surprises.

·           Provides the roadmaps and visuals in a logical sequence

·           Provides direction to a substitute.

·           Is based upon the previous knowledge.

·           Uses motivational techniques

·           Includes necessary materials

·           Is student centered, flexible, complete, interesting and activity based.

·           Has proportionate time allocation

·           Includes evaluation process

·           Provides information for the use of A.V aids.

·           Provides assignment for the students.

 

Purposes of Lesson Plan

·           Structure the lesson

·           Organize its contents.

·           Determine the method of delivery.

·           Assess students learning.

·           Evaluate its applications

 

Instructional planning is a process of deciding what to teach and how to teach during the teaching-learning process. Instructional planning helps the teacher to construct goals, objectives, and instructional and assessment methodology for the classroom. It is systematic planning that helps in developing, evaluating, and managing the instructional process during the classroom process.

 

Principles of Instructional Planning:

• Instructional planning is important for understanding the basis of the course in the context of the educational institution.
• To determine what content to be included in the course concerning set objectives.
• To complete the subject matter at the specified time.

2.2. Different Types of Plans- Year Plan, Unit Plan, Lesson Plan

Based on the plan of instruction for the whole academic year, unit and lesson plan are  developed. This planning of instruction has three levels. They are Year plan, Unit plan, and Lesson plan

1. Year Plan

A year plan is a plan for an academic year. Planning for the whole year’s work as part of the pedagogic analysis is known as year plan. Based on the number of working days in each term (quarter) the number of class periods available to teach a particular subject is estimated. The time that will be spent on co-curricular activities, vacation in each term, local holidays, study holidays and examination days are to be taken into account. Then the time available is distributed among the different units (chapters) included in the syllabus. Thus, the year plan stipulates the time available (in number of class periods) to teach each unit, the month in which each unit will be taught and the relative weightages to the instructional objectives in each unit

Steps in year planning

1. Formation of units (organize subject matter into different chapters)

2. Determining Objectives (setting priorities on knowledge, understanding, skill, appreciation, interest, attitude etc.)

3. Scheduling of the time available for instruction (class periods)

In short, Course plan/Year plan is a plan of instruction in which planning of the whole content can be done before the commencement of the course. The course plan provides the details of the content, skills, and sometimes, values to be taught for the entire course. It is a long-range teacher guide.

Format of Year Plan

Subject:                                                                                   Standard:

School:                                                                                    Year:

No	Unit	No: of class periods	Month	Term

 

2. Unit Plan: After the course plan, the unit plan can be prepared by the teacher. A unit plan consists of many lessons and is longer than a lesson plan. A unit plan has five sections i.e., introduction, objectives, contents, hints for teachers, and evaluation. The topic is the smallest unit of a unit plan.

Unit planning is an important aspect in the planning of instruction. One of the importance of a unit plan is that it breaks up the year’s work into small sections which students can understand and overview.

Steps in Unit Planning

1. Selection and systematization of the unit

2. Content analysis, 3. Determination of objectives  4. Learning experience

5. Selection of teaching aids   6. Evaluation  7. Assignment

Format of Unit Plan

I.                  Name of the teacher:                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Standard:

       Subject:                                                                               Unit:

                                                                                             Duration:

II.               Introduction on the unit

III.             Curricular objectives

IV.            Content analysis

V.               Pre- requisites VI.

Content Outline	Curricular Objectives	Learning Strategies	Leaning Activities	Learning Materials	Duration	Evaluation

 

VII.           Follow up Activities

VIII.       Enrichment Activities

 

3. Lesson Plan: A lesson plan is a plan of action

A lesson plan is a teacher's plan for teaching an individual lesson. The lesson plan is the guide of the teacher which includes the aims, objectives, subject matter, materials, devices to be used, etc. during the teaching-learning process. A lesson plan also helps in deciding the teaching methods and techniques and evaluation for achieving the desired results.

 

Need for lesson Planning

1. To give a definite direction to the teacher for each day’s work

2. To make the teacher thorough with the content and to enable him develop confidence

3. To plan for maintaining links between different lessons for teaching a particular unit and between the various learning materials in the same lesson.

4. To specify well defined goals to be realised in the course of the lesson.

5. To prevent waste of time due to lack of pre-planning.

6. To decide upon appropriate learning activities and use of instructional materials.

7. To decide upon procedures for gathering feedback and for providing reinforcement.

8. To anticipate probable difficulties and to plan remedial measures

9. To plan evaluational procedures both formative and summative

Advantages of lesson planning

Ø  We can present the learning material in a logical, systematic and effective way.

Ø  We can obtain adequate coverage of content.

Ø  We can identify the relevant and appropriate objectives to be realised by instruction.

Ø  We can realise the instructional objectives effectively.

Ø  We can ensure economy of time, material and effort.

Ø  We will develop self-confidence and pride in our work.

Ø  We can impart quality instruction.

Ø  We get opportunities to experiment with our own ideas.

Ø  We can maintain orderliness and system in the instructional process.

2.3. Approaches in Lesson Planning (Behavioural and Constructive)

A. Behaviourist Approaches in lesson planning

There are various behaviourist approaches of lesson planning based on behaviourist theories. The important among them are...

1. The Herbartian Approach

2. Gloverian approach, 3. Evaluation approach, 4. Unit approach (not in syllabus)

5. RCEM Approach

1. Herbartian Approach

The great German philosopher and educationist Sir. John Fredrick Herbart (1776 1841) and his followers developed this approach which consists of the following four steps. 1. Clearness (Preparation) ii. Association (Presentation) iii. System (Abstract) iv. Method (Application). These steps were further modified by his disciples as:

1. Preparation: This step is concerned with preparation of the mind of learners for receiving a new knowledge. Here the teacher has to check the related knowledge which the learner has already acquired. At this stage, the teacher should plan for the presentation of the content.

ii. Presentation: It is the stage at which the learning materials and learning experiences are gradually presented in the sequential order. The new ideas or knowledge of content is imparted in such a way that it may be linked with the already familiar knowledge of the students. Here the teacher should follow a definite structure of learning activities and impart specific content.

iii, Association and Comparison: This stage is meant for providing opportunity for comparing related ideas and for establishing linkages or associations. This would help in gaining holistic knowledge in the place of various learning points presented as pieces of information.

iv. Generalization: If the third stage is executed effectively, the pupils develop the ability to establish new relations by comparison and reflection, and thus to deduce generalisation. This makes the knowledge thorough.

v. Application: Here the teacher creates situations or problems so that student can apply the generalised ideas and concepts in new situations. This would facilitate transfer of knowledge to many related, but novel situations. This would also facilitate acquisition of new knowledge and skills.

vi. Recapitulation: This is the last step. The understanding comprehension of the subject matter as well as the ability to apply these taught by the teacher can be reviewed by putting some suitable questions on the topic. This recapitulation helps consolidation of the knowledge acquired and also remediation in case of gaps, if any, noted.

 

5. RCEM Approach

This approach was developed by the Regional College of Education, Mysore (RCEM). This is an improvement of the earlier approaches. This approach adopts ideas suggested in Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational objectives. The design of lesson plan according to this approach consists of three steps.

i. Inputs stage, ii. Process stage iii, Output stage

1. Input stage

It includes the identification of objectives. They are known as Expected Behavioural Outcomes (EBOs). These objectives are broadly classified into four categories - knowledge, understanding, application and creativity. These objectives are written in behavioural terms by employing seventeen mental abilities. The entering behaviour of the learners is also identified. The sequence of instructional procedure is determined with the help of these objectives.

ii. Process stage

At this stage, the teaching strategies are selected for achieving these objectives. The communication strategy and audio-visual aids are employed for the effective presentation of the content. The main focus of the process is to create the learning situations for providing appropriate learning experiences to the students. The process also includes the technique of motivation so that student’s behaviour can be reinforced for the desirable responses. It implies the interaction of teacher and Students. The participation of pupil and teacher is also an essential feature.

III. Output Stage

This stage of instructional procedure includes evaluation of change in behaviour or Real Learning Outcomes (RLOs). The various measuring devices are employed for evaluating the RLOs. These measuring instruments are constructed on the basis of EBOs. The teacher usually measures the RLOs by using oral and written questions.

 

B. Lesson Planning under Constructivist Approach

From the year 2005-06 onwards, the curriculum transaction at the higher secondary level has been changed from a teacher centred one to a learner centered one. Objective based instruction based on behaviourist approach is transformed to a competency-based constructivist approach. Here the teacher is acting as a scaffolder and a consultant. This approach of lesson planning is based on curriculum objectives. The details regarding curriculum objectives is given below. |

Curricular Objectives: The instructional process is always objective based. The objectives which are framed out of Curricular material is known as Curricular Objectives. These consist of three aspects such as Competencies, Process, and Output. Teacher is setting the competencies, which are to be attained by the learner, and giving activities which enable the learner to attain the competencies. These activities help the learner to experience a process, which helps them to construct knowledge. This kind of construction of knowledge helps them for a self-transformation. That is, from a ‘learner’ to a ‘learner with desirable behavioural changes’ or output. These behavioural changes can be evaluated with the help of a mediator only. These mediators can be Project reports, Seminar reports, Notes, etc. prepared by the learners as evidence for the acquisition of behavioural changes.

For example, a curriculum objective like “Analyses the ethical values of a business through seminar, discussion and prepares notes’, includes “Analyses the ethical values of the business” as competency, “Seminar and discussion” as the process, and the product will be the report prepared by the learner.

While planning, teacher should analyse the curricular objectives and based on this he should proceed for the preparation of plans. The activities should be planned on the basis of the detailed analysis of the curricular objectives. To frame a curricular objective, the teacher should systematically integrate the content with its instructional process and the way for evaluation ie., it is the sum total of content + process + evaluation.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Module 3

Evaluation in Commerce Teaching and Learning

3.1. Construction of Achievement Test, Diagnostic Test and Remediation

Achievement Test

Achievement tests are conducted by the teacher to test the scholastic achievement of learner at the end of unit or course. They have their own limitations. They cannot be used to compare the performance of students of one school with that of the other. For this purpose, standardized achievements tests are used. The items of this kind of test are based on the content and objectives common to a number of schools which are to be compared.

Achievement test construction

     1- Planning of The Test

Before constructing an achievement test, the test constructor should think about the following aspects as part of planning. Purpose of the test, Time for the test, Maximum and minimum mark, Nature and scope of questions, Units to be selected

 2- Preparation of A Design for The Test

After determining the broad scope of the test, a design has to be developed tune with it. Mainly four factors are to be considered while designing a test.

a. weightage to objective, b. Weightage to content

        c. Weightage to forms of questions d. Weightage to difficulty level

      a. Weightage to objectives

This indicates what objectives are to be tested and what weightage has to be given to each objective. The weightage should be decided according to the relative importance of objectives and nature of the content.

Sl.No.	Objectives	Marks	Percentage
1	Knowledge	5	10
2	Understanding	15	30
3	Application	20	40
4	Skills	10	20
	Total	50	100

b. Weightage to Content

This indicates the various aspects of the content and the weightage to be given to those different aspects. All the content should be covered and proper weightage should be given to each content according to their relative importance.

Sl.No.	Content	Marks	Percentage
1	Unit-1	10	20
2	Unit-2	11	22
3	Unit-3	19	38
4	Unit-4	10	20
	Total	50	100

 

C. Weightage to forms of questions

 

This indicates the forms of the items to be included in the test and the weightage to be given for each. The setter should select those forms of questions that are suitable to the objectives and content to be tested.

Sl.No.	Form of Questions	No. of questions	Marks	Percentage
1	Objective	25	25	50
2	Short answer	5	15	30
3	Essay	1	10	20
	Total	31	50	100

 

d. Weightage to Difficulty level

Appropriate weightage should be given for different levels of difficult of the item. The test should cater to the bright, the average and the dull.

Sl.No.	Difficulty Level	Marks	Percentage
1	Easy	15	30
2	Average	25	50
3	Difficult	10	20
	Total	50	100

3. Preparation of Blueprint

A blue print gives the details of the design in concrete terms. Blue print is prepared as a three-dimensional chart indicating the distribution of questions objective wise, content wise and form wise. The following table shows the blueprint for an achievement test (the number outside the bracket indicates the marks and those inside indicate the number of questions).

Sl. No.	Content	Curricular Objectives	Mental Processes	Forms of Questions			Total Score
				O	SA	LA
1	Unit-1 Company	1,2	3,4,6,7	(2) 1	(2) 3	-	8
2	Unit-2 Issue of shares	3	1,6,7,8	(1) 1	(1) 3	(1) 4	8
3	Unit-3 Types of shares	4	1,2,5,10	(3) 1	(2) 2	-	7
4	Unit-4 Forfeiture of shares	5,6	1,5,7,9	(1) 1	(1) 2	(1) 4	7
	Total score			7	15	8	30

Note: O= Objective type, SA= Short Answer, LA= Long Answer. Figure inside the bracket shows no. of questions and outside shows scores for each question.

4.Writing of Items

The blue print gives a very clear idea about the number of questions to be written from each topic, their forms and objectives. With this precise directive suggested by the blue-print the paper setter can start writing item according to the requirements. While writing the items, the difficulty level should be considered. Whether all questions can be answered within the time allotted should also be considered. Test item construction demand mastery of content and technique of constructing each type of questions. If a pool of well-prepared items in the form of a Question Bank is available, the constructor can easily choose the required number of items for the test in tune with the specifications of the blue print.

After writing the preliminary details such as the name of the examination, title of the paper, maximum marks and time, instruction for answering each part, etc. the setter has to arrange the questions already written. It is advisable to arrange questions in the order of their difficulty level. Normally, knowledge-items will be easier than an understanding items, which in turn may be easier than an application item. This need not be always true, but may be taken as a clue for arranging questions in a test. Items for each section can then be arranged.

5. Preparation of the Scoring Key and the Marking Scheme:

In order to maintain objectivity, scoring should be made strictly in accordance with a predesigned scheme of evaluation. So, it is essential to prepare the scoring key and the marking scheme Simultaneously with the question paper. In the case of objective type items where the answers are in the form of some letter or other symbol, a scoring key is prepared. Normally no practical credit is given for an objective type item. In the case of short answer and essay type questions, the marking scheme is prepared. In preparing marking scheme what the examiner has to do is to list out the value points to be credited and then to fix up the mark to be given to each value point. Clearly writing the value points will also help to identify defects, if any, that might have accidently crept into the test items and these could be corrected before the final test is released.

Usually, general instructions also are given at the end of the scheme of valuation in order to avoid subjectivity in scoring. Here indication may be given as to the penalty for committing errors, spelling mistakes, grammatical mistakes, etc.

 

6. Preparation of Question-wise Analysis:

In order to avoid all loopholes, the setter prepares a table containing all relevant details of all the items of the test. This is done by making an analysis of each item in terms of objective, specification, form o question, difficulty level, marks and estimated time. This analysis is very helpful to check whether all the aspects envisaged in the design and blue-print are satisfied by the test in its final form. If some mistake is noticed it should be rectified at this final stage. |

Characteristics of an achievement test

1. It measures how much a student has: achieved.

2. It gives due weightage to objectives, content, forms of questions and difficulty levels in a general way.

3. It gives proportional weightage to each and every topic prescribed by the curriculum in a broad manner.

4. It strictly observes the time factor that is, achievement is assessed through the performance of the student within a span of time allotted. No extra time is allowed.

5. The level of performance in an achievement test is generally measured in terms of marks or scores.

6. Marks scored are crucial in an achievement test. This is because, it aims at placement of pupils in the group concerned according to ranks.

Functions of an achievement test

1. To see how effectively the teaching and learning have taken place.

2. To motivate students before a new assignment is taken up.

3. To provide basis for promotion to the next stage.

4. To help in determining the relative position of each student in a particular group.

 

CONSTRUCTION OF DIAGNOSTIC TEST AND REMEDIATION

Diagnostic test

It “is a test designed to identify and investigate the difficulties, disabilities, in- adequacies and gaps of pupils in specific curriculum areas with a view to helping them to overcome these difficulties through remedial instructions.”

The term diagnosis has been borrowed from the medical profession. It means identification of disease by means of patient’s symptoms. For example, when a patient comes to a doctor, the doctor initially puts some questions to the patient to gather some basic information’s about the disease and then uses other techniques to get more related information to identify the disease and its probable cause(s).

After careful analysis of these data, he prescribes the medicines as remedial treatment. Similarly, in the field of education, diagnosis has many such implications. Difficulties in learning occur frequently at all levels and among pupils of both high and low mental ability.

In order to handle such cases, the teacher also uses similar techniques like a doctor to diagnose the relative strengths and weaknesses of pupil in the specific area of study, analyze the causes for the same and then provides remedial measures as per necessity.

Since tools and techniques used in mental measurements are not that exact, objective and precise like the tools and techniques used in sciences, the teachers are cautioned to use the diagnostic data with great care for designing remedial programmes.

But it is used in education to determine the learning difficulties or deficiencies of the learner. Diagnostic test is a test used to diagnose strength and weakness of the learning in certain areas of study whereas diagnostic evaluation is centered on schooling process such as the curriculum programme, administration and so on.

When learning difficulties that are left unresolved by the standard corrective prescriptions of formative evaluation and a pupil continues to experience failure despite the use of prescribed alternative methods of instruction, then a more detailed diagnosis is indicated.

To use a medical analogy, formative testing provides first aid treatment for simple learning problems and diagnostic testing searches for the underlying causes of those problems that do not respond to first aid treatment.

Thus it is much more comprehensive and detailed and the difference lies in the types of question each of them is addressing.

The following are the salient features of Diagnostic Testing:

(i)   The diagnostic test takes up where the formative test leaves off.

(ii)      A diagnostic test is a means by which an individual profile is examined and compared against certain norms or criteria.

(iii)    Diagnostic test focuses on individual’s educational weakness or learning deficiency and identify the gaps in pupils.

(iv)       Diagnostic test is more intensive and act as a tool for analysis of Learning Difficulties.

(v)    Diagnostic test is more often limited to low ability students.

(vi)    Diagnostic test is corrective in nature.

(vii)      Diagnostic test pinpoints the specific types of error each pupil is making and searches for underlying causes of the problem.

(viii)    Diagnostic test is much more comprehensive.

(ix)    Diagnostic test helps us to identify the trouble spots and discovered those areas of student’s weakness that are unresolved by formative test.

Purpose of Diagnostic test

•          To identify the strength and weakness in individual with in a subject field

•          To identify the cause for poor achievement

•          To identify the learning difficulty associated with the student

•          To get an awareness of the behavioural and scholastic problems of the child

•          To find out appropriate remedial measures to solve the problem

Types of Diagnostic test

•          Pre-diagnostic test

•          Post-diagnostic test

Construction of Diagnostic Test

The following are the broad steps involved in the construction of a diagnostic test. Diagnostic Test may be Standardized or Teacher made and more or less followed the principles of test construction i.e., preparation, planning, writing items, assembling the test, preparing the scoring key and marking scheme and reviewing the test.

The Unit on which a Diagnostic Test is based should be broken into learning points without omitting any of the item and various types of items of test is to be prepared in a proper sequence. Objective type test item is sufficient and easily locate area of difficulty in a proper manner. The procedure involves:

1, Analysis of the context minutely i.e., major and minor one.

2. Forming questions on each minor concept (recall and recognition type) in order of difficulty.

3. Review the test items by the experts/experienced teacher to modify or delete test items if necessary.

4. Administering the test.

5. Scoring the test and analysis of the results.

6. Identification of weakness

7. Identify the causes of weakness (such as defective hearing or vision, poor home conditions, unsatisfactory relations with classmates or teacher, lack of ability) by the help of interview, questionnaires, peer information, family, class teacher, doctor or past records.

8. Suggest remedial programme (No set pattern).

Advantages

•          To find out difficulties of students in learning a specific area.

•          Identifies the causes result in poor achievement.

•          Finding problems before it become a serious problem for students, parents & teachers.

•          Can give remedial instructions appropriately.

•          It is essential for effective learning.

•          It is highly useful in educational evaluation.

•          Helps the learner to overcome his difficulties in certain area/ subject.

Limitations

•          Highly time consuming.

•          Work-load for teachers.

•          Large amount of resources and trained teachers are required.

ACHIEVEMENT TEST

DIAGNOSIS TEST

•          Measures how much a student has achieved.     •          Give due weightage to objective, content. •          Give due weightage to every topic in the content area •          Strictly observes time factor •          For the purpose of promotion •          Test arranged in the order of difficulty level of items. •         Construction is easy as per pre- determined steps

•          Measures how much a student has not been achieved and why •          Consider everything – that is done in a critical and analytical way. •          Give    greater      emphasis      to    the aspect with potential difficulty. •          Not    concerned      with    the     time factor. •          For the purpose of identifying the difficulties. •          Arranged in the order of learning sequence. •         Construction of the test requires more imagination.

 

Remedial Instruction/Teaching

When once exact nature of the difficulties and reasons are known, the teacher has to take steps for remedial instruction. It can be in the Group level or Individual level depending upon the scope of diagnosis.

Special Features of Remedial Instruction

·         It is a process of instruction that follows immediately after the diagnostic test.

·         Teacher plans strategies for remedial teaching on the basis of nature of the difficulties and reasons behind it.

·         Teacher provides additional learning experience to compensate the difficulty.

·         Remedial instruction is based on the type of difficulties.

·         Diagnosis and remedial instruction should be continuous and integral part of effective instruction.

Diagnosis and Remediation:

Diagnosis is concerned with the persistent/ recurring learning difficulties that are left unresolved by the standard corrective prescription of formative assessment. Remediation on the basis of the difficulties it is also a function of evaluation.

3.2 Types of Test items- Merits and Demerits

A written test is composed of a number of test items- Essay type, Short answer type and Objective type.

1. Objective Type

An objective type of test item is one in which the response will be objective. The different types of objective items are true-false type, multiple choice type, matching type and completion type.

Multiple Choice Question: It is the most popular test item. It has two parts. The first part of the item is called STEM presented in the form of an incomplete sentence or an interrogative sentence. The second part of the item consist of OPTIONS or alternatives usually five or four in number where one is the keyword or the answer and others are called distractors. The examinee has to select the best choice. The test builder who prepares multiple choice item should take care that no answer should be far-fetched or partially wrong. There should be a gradation in the suitability or correctness of the answers. While seeing the distractors the examinee should feel the challenge to find out the correct answer. Response should not overlap or be synonymous with one another. Do not include distractors that do not fit in grammatically with the stem.

True- False Test Items: In this form examinee will be given a statement. The statement may be either true or false. The student has to indicate whether it is true or false. In constructing such an item, the setter should avoid sentences which are neither true nor false or which are intermediate. The greatest drawback of this item is that the examinee makes guesses and even when one does not posses’ knowledge of the subject matter. The chances are 50:50 for a guess being correct. This item can be scored very easily and it can be constructed easily. These items are useful for young children who have poor vocabulary. It tests the ability to discriminate between misconceptions and truth. A large quantum of subject matter can be covered within a short period.

Matching Type Test Item: This is the modified version of multiple-choice test item. In fact matching type question comprises an economical form of combining a number of multiple choice items in the same question. A set of such problems are given against the answer with their order shuffled will be given as answer set. Students has to find out correct answer for each item. Question set is known as the premises and answer set is known as responses. Several precautions have to be taken while writing a good item of this type. The first point is that item in column one should be homogeneous in nature. This will not only economies time but also help in making the item clear and definite.

Completion Type Test Item: The test item which requires the examinee to fill the missing part of the sentence, a series or a graphic pattern is called completion type test item. He has to supply the word or phrase omitted. While scoring such test, the more important factor tested being logical reasoning, there may be some differences in the correct answer themselves. While preparing this type of test item avoid ambiguous sentences and do not omit too many words omit only key words or phrase rather than minor details.

Advantages

•            It can be scored objectively and easily. The scoring will not vary from time to time and from examiner to examiner. Scoring can be done even mechanically.

•            An adequately representative sample of the topics can be covered. A large amount of study material can be tested in a short period of time.

•            It reduces the subjective element of the examiner to the minimum.

•            It reduces the role of luck and cramming of expected questions. As a result there is greater reliability and validity.

•            It promotes economy of time, for it takes less time to answer. It also saves a lot of time of the scorer.

•            It eliminates irrelevant factors such as speed of writing, fluency of expression, literary style, good handwriting, neatness, etc.

•            They have high diagnostic value.

•            They are free from the opportunities of irrelevant answers.

Limitations of Objective type tests

•          Items are difficult to construct. Preparing good items require talent, imagination and effort.

•          There is a chance for guess work in certain types

•          Problem of cheating

•          Emphasis on testing the superficial knowledge

2. Short answer type tests

A question requiring four value points at the most may be defined as a short answer question. The term value points indicate a point to be given credit in the expected answer. This diminishes subjectivity. Short answer type questions are of great help in having a wide coverage of content and each item can be set to test a definite objective.

Advantages Short answer type tests

•          A relatively large portion of the content can be covered in a test.

•          It is easy to construct, because it measures a relatively simple learning outcome.

•          Questions of this form can be made highly thought provoking.

•          It provides little opportunity for guessing as the examinee is required to supply scientific    information

•          It can be made quite objective by carefully fixing up the value points.

•          It is useful in evaluating the ability to interpret diagrams, charts, graphs etc.

Limitations of Short answer type tests

•          More subjective than the objective type of items

•          Rote memory is encouraged.

•          Mechanical scoring is not possible because of the subjectivity involved.

As in the case of objective type items, due care has to be taken in preparing short answer type of test items. Properly analyzing the content in relation to the objectives and specific behaviors, designing problematic situations suitable for the evaluation of those specifications and wording the items precisely so as to avoid ambiguity and subjectivity are the steps to be taken for the preparation of good short-answer type of items.

3. Essay type tests

This is the age-old traditional type of questions, so well-known and so frequently used. It is a free response test item and covers a large content. This is the type which can help in evaluating complex skills and other similar behavioral patterns.

Advantages of Essay type tests

•          It is the most popular form.

•          Easy to construct and administer.

•          Allows relative freedom of response to a given problem

•          Students can express their ideas clearly

•          It is quite useful in measuring certain very important abilities of the child.

•          They lead qualitative evaluation of pupil’s achievement.

•          It promotes originality and creative thinking.

•          Reduces the chance of on the spot copying.

•          The possibility of guess work can be eliminated.

•          Comprehension of the subject matter as a whole is encouraged.

Limitations of Essay type tests

•          Minimum validity. This means they do not bring out proper distinction between bright, good and poor students.

•          Do not possess sufficient reliability and objectivity

•          More stress on rote memorisation

•          They cannot comprehensively cover the content.

•          Through essay type items, proper evaluation of specific abilities of the students A

•          Since the number of items is limited, there is an element of chance. This leads to selective study on the part of the students, which is not desirable.

However, the objectivity of essay type questions also can be improved with proper care and scientific planning. The value points involved should be determined as precisely as possible and the wordings should be regulated as to reflect these value points specifically. Precise scheme of valuation should be prepared and strictly followed at the time of valuation. These precautions will help in improving the quality of essay-type items.

3.3. Student Self Evaluation- Preparation of Tool

In education, the term assessment refers to the wide variety of methods or tools that educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning progress, skill acquisition, or educational needs of students. There is a greater understanding of the importance of timely assessments for learning as well as regular             assessments of learning. The latest concept of assessment entails three dimensions:

✧ Assessment of learning

✧ Assessment for learning

✧ Assessment as learning

Three Dimensions of Assessment

Assessment of Learning is the assessment that becomes public and results in statements about how well students are learning. It often contributes to pivotal decisions that will affect students’ futures. The emphasis shifts from summative to formative assessment in Assessment for Learning. Assessment for Learning happens during the learning, often more than once, rather than at the end. Students understand exactly what they are to learn, what is expected of them and are given feedback and advice on how to improve their work.

Assessment as Learning is a process apart from these concepts. Through this process                           students are able to learn about themselves as learners and become aware of how they learn – become metacognitive learners (knowledge of one’s own thought processes). Students reflect on their work on a regular basis, usually through self and peer assessment     and decide, what their next learning will be. Assessment as learning helps students to take more responsibility for their own learning and monitoring future directions.

Student Self-Assessment

Student self-assessment occurs when learners assess their own performance. Student self-assessment is “the process by which the student gathers information about and reflects on his or her own learning. It is the student’s own assessment of personal progress in knowledge, skills, processes, or attitudes. Self-assessment leads a student to a greater awareness and understanding of himself or herself as a learner. Self-assessment is more accurately defined as a process by which students (1) monitor and evaluate the quality of their thinking and behaviour when learning (2) identify strategies that improve their understanding and skills. That is, self-assessment occurs when students judge their own work to improve performance as they identify discrepancies between current and desired performance. Self-assessment identifies further learning targets and instructional strategies students can apply to improve achievement.

NEED OF SELF EVALUATION

Through self-assessment students can identify their own skill gap, where their knowledge is weak see where to focus their attention in learning set realistic goals revise their work track their own progress. This process helps students stay involved and motivated and encourages self-reflection and responsibility for their learning. Self-assessment shall be a regular practice of every teaching learning endeavor, because:

❖  Making judgements about the progress of one's own learning, is integral to the learning  process.

❖  Further learning is only possible after the recognition of what needs to be learned.

❖  If a student can identify his/her learning progress, this may motivate further learning.

❖  Self-evaluation encourages reflection on one's own learning.

❖  Self-assessment can promote learner responsibility and independence.

How to Implement Self -Assessment Practice?

Intensive conversations with students need to occur before introducing any self-assessment practices. It is particularly important to explore the assumptions and principles that underlie the self-assessment innovation. The way in which self-assessment is implemented is critical to its acceptance by student. The implementation process needs to include:

✧ A clear rationale: what are the purposes of this particular activity?

✧ Explicit procedure: students need to know what is expected of them.

✧ Reassurance of a safe environment: in which they can be honest about their own performance without the fear that they will expose information which can be used against them.

✧ Confidence that other students will do likewise, and that cheating will be detected and discouraged.

Self -Assessment Tool

Checklists, rubrics and structures for reflection are all tools that can help students with self-assessment. The most effective and common tool for self-assessment is rubrics.

RUBRIC

A rubric is usually a one- or two-page document that lists criteria and describes varying levels of quality, from excellent to poor, for a specific assignment. Although many teachers now use rubrics as scoring guides to grade student work, at their best rubrics can serve dual purposes. They can teach, as well as evaluate. A good rubric describes the kinds of mistakes students tend to make, as well as the ways in which good work shines. It gives students valuable information about the task they are about to undertake and takes the guess-work out of understanding their learning targets, or what counts as high quality work.

Preparation of A Rubric

Step1: Develop a checklist and Rubric criteria from it: Checklists are the first step in developing a rubric. Teachers can use benchmarks to discern which parts of the task are most important, and teachers can highlight these tasks in the checklist. The checklist becomes the criteria used for the rubric.

Step2: Develop the point system for each criterion: An even number of points works well because there is no rubric middle or center point. In rubric grading, teachers sometimes have a tendency to choose the center point value. If there is no center, teachers use the descriptors more effectively and rely on the information stated for each level of the criteria.

Step 3: Develop the descriptors for each level of quality: It is imperative that descriptors be clear and precise and that the vocabulary used be appropriate to the age level of students who will be using or who will be evaluated by, the rubric. Descriptors should not overlap levels but rather should act as a subsequent step for each level. Descriptors often build on the previous level of performance, and this helps students and evaluators easily determine which level is an appropriate reflection of product or performances.

Two major types of rubrics are there: Analytic Rubrics and Holistic Rubrics. Here gives a description of construction of an analytic rubric.

 

Self-Assessment Tool

Name of student:                                                                                           Standard:

Name of School:                                                                                            Roll no.:

Sl. No		Completely	Partially	Need Improvement
1	I can explain the activities relating to commerce
2	I can describe the nature of business risks and their causes
3	I can understand the role of indigenous banking system in trade and commerce
4	I can analyse the basic factors to be considered while starting a business
5	I can explain the concept and objectives of business;
6	I can appreciate the development of trade and commerce in historical past
8	I can find out the importance of commerce
9	I can evaluate the merits of different types of industries.
10	I can analyse the nature of commerce.

 

3.4. Teacher Evaluation: Criteria for Evaluating Teaching Competence

The greatest single factor impacting a student’s ability to learn is the quality of the teacher in the classroom. Teachers are one of the most important contributing factors towards the process of effective learning. They are the primary source of instructions, information and data to the students. In any learning system, syllabus and books are considered to be very vital for its effectiveness. However, without a competent teacher, there would not be anyone to guide and give direction to the students on how to comprehend these syllabus and books. So, it is essential for the institutions to select and retain the best teachers for better output.

Teacher Evaluation

Evaluation is a process that critically examines a program. It involves collecting and analyzing information about a program's activities, characteristics and outcomes. Its purpose is to make judgments about a program, to improve its effectiveness, and/or to inform programming decisions. Teacher evaluation is defined as a systematic procedure for reviewing the performance of a teacher in a classroom and analyzing the review to provide constructive feedback for the teacher's professional growth. The primary purpose of teacher evaluation is personal and professional growth that leads to improved performance. It helps to identify strength and weakness of a teacher. It improves student's achievement also.

Need of Teacher Evaluation

A strong teacher evaluation system is central to improving teacher quality. It provides the means to recognize and reward great teachers so we can learn from and replicate their success. It also helps to identify those who need help so they can get the extra training they need to be effective. The process of teacher evaluation also ensures that effective learning is being imparted to the students. So, teacher evaluation is a very advantageous procedure in educational institutions.

Criteria for Teacher Evaluation

Traditionally, teacher evaluation systems relied heavily on classroom observations conducted by principals or other school administrators, sometimes with the help of rubrics or checklists. Samples of students' work, teachers' records and lesson plans, and other relevant factors were also often taken into account. While setting criteria for teacher evaluation, following points should be remembered. Teacher evaluation should be based on professional teaching. Evaluations should include multifaceted evidence of teacher practice, student learning, and professional contributions. Evaluators should be knowledgeable about instruction and well trained in the evaluation system.

Evaluation should be accompanied by useful feedback, and connected to professional development. The evaluation system should value and encourage teacher collaboration. Expert teachers should be part of the assistance and review process. Panels of teachers and administrators should oversee the evaluation process. There are no fixed criteria to evaluate teacher competency. The criteria may vary according to the need and purpose of evaluation. But whatever may be the need some criteria must be included like subject competency of the teacher, presentation and management skills, use of productive teaching techniques, promotion of teaching quality and culture, use of evaluation strategies etc. Here are some criteria that can be used to evaluate teacher competencies.

1.  Level of knowledge

•  Deep understanding of the content - important facts, concepts, principles etc.

•  Clarity of thought.

•  Understanding of educational theories and developmental stages.

•  Knowledge of various educational trends.

•  Knowledge of pedagogical methods and techniques.

2.  Facilitation of learning and development

•  Transactional competencies.

•  Use of appropriate teaching learning strategies.

•  Effective use of teaching aids and devices.

•  Ability to develop textual and self-learning material.

•  Implement the lesson plan effectively.

3. Executive and Management Skills

•  Skill to achieve high quality educational objectives in minimum time, energy and money through appropriate and effective use of educational aids and active participation of available human resources

•  Ability to identify individual differences

•  Establishes and maintain discipline

•  Ability to diagnose learning problems and provide remedial measures

4. Evaluation Competencies

•  Skill to prepare appropriate evaluation tool

•  Ability to give appropriate feedback

•  Ability to record student progress

•  Awareness of appropriate evaluation strategies

5. Positive Interrelations

•  Ability to get cooperation from parents and colleagues

•  Ability to keep relation with community

•  Social skill and social involvement

 

 

Module 4

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) is a framework to understand and describe the kinds of knowledge needed by a teacher for effective pedagogical practice in a technology enhanced learning environment. The idea of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) was first described by Lee Shulman and TPACK builds on those core ideas through the inclusion of technology. Prof. Punya Mishra and Prof. Matthew J. Koehler both at Michigan State University, have done extensive work in constructing TPACK framework. In this framework descriptions of PCK to describe how teachers’ understanding of educational technologies and PCK interact with one another to produce effective teaching with technology.

.

In the above figure, there are three main components of teachers’ knowledge: content, pedagogy, and technology. Equally important to the model are the interactions between and among these bodies of knowledge, represented as PCK, TCK (technological content knowledge), TPK (technological pedagogical knowledge), and TPACK. The TPACK framework highlights complex relationships that exist between content, pedagogy and technology knowledge areas and may be a useful organizational structure to integrate technology effectively.

 

COMPONENTS OF TPACK

a. Content Knowledge (CK)

Content knowledge may be defined as “a thorough grounding in school/college level subject matter” or “command of the subject” (American Council on Education, 1999). It consists of knowledge of concepts, theories, and conceptual frameworks as well as knowledge about accepted ways of developing knowledge. The content to be covered in higher secondary school financial management is different from the content to be covered in the graduate course on the same topic. Knowledge of content is of critical importance for teachers. Knowledge and the nature of inquiry differ greatly between fields, and teachers should understand the deeper knowledge fundamentals of the disciplines in which they teach. In the case of accounting, it would include knowledge of facts and theories, approaches and practices, and real context-based applications.

 

b. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

Pedagogical knowledge includes generic knowledge about learning styles of students, teaching approaches, methods of assessment and knowledge of different theories about learning. PCK covers the core business of teaching, learning, curriculum, assessment and reporting, such as the conditions that promote learning and the links among curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy. This knowledge imparts the importance of forging connections among different content-based ideas, students’ prior knowledge, alternative teaching strategies, and the flexibility that comes from exploring alternative ways of looking at the same idea or problem are all essential for effective teaching.

 

c. Technology Knowledge (TK)      

Technology knowledge refers to an understanding of the way that technologies are used in a specific content domain. For example, for commerce teachers, it is an understanding of the range of technologies that a businessman uses in e - commerce and on line business. Within the context of technology integration in schools, it appears to most often refer to digital technologies such as laptops, the Internet, and software applications. TK does however go beyond digital literacy to having knowledge of how to change the purpose of existing technologies (e.g. wikis) so that they can be used in a technology enhanced learning environment.

 

d. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

Pedagogical content knowledge is knowledge about how to combine pedagogy and content effectively. This is knowledge about how to make a subject matter understandable to learners. PCK includes knowledge of what makes a subject difficult or easy to learn, as well as knowledge of common misconceptions and likely preconceptions students bring with them to the classroom.

 

e. Technological Content Knowledge (TCK)

Technological content knowledge refers to knowledge about how technology may be used to provide new ways of teaching content. For example, digital animation makes it possible for students to develop advertisement copies of different products.

f. Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)

TPK denotes the ability to choose a technological tool based on its fitness for the learning activity. Technological pedagogical knowledge refers to the affordances and constraints of technology as an enabler of different teaching approaches. For example, online collaboration tools may facilitate social learning for geographically separated learners. \

g. Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK)

Technological pedagogical content knowledge refers to the knowledge and understanding of the interplay between CK, PK and TK when using technology for teaching and learning. It includes an understanding of the complexity of relationships between students, teachers, content, practices and technologies.

True technology integration is understanding and negotiating the relationships between Technology, Pedagogy and Content. Teachers need to know not only the subject matter they teach, but also the manner in which the subject matter can be changed with the application of technology that supports the learning activities’ successful implementation. It is necessary to teach with technology in contexts that recognize the connections between Technology, Pedagogy and Content Knowledge.

4.2 Ways and Means to link technology to Pedagogic Content Knowledge

Keeping technology as a separate knowledge set causes problems, but when we understand the framework of TPACK, we can integrate technology into the content and pedagogy of our classrooms. The integration will help our students learn more effectively. Mishra and Koehler suggest that TPACK should guide curriculum development and teacher education.

To apply TPACK to our classrooms now, Judith B. Harris and Mark J. Hofer worked with colleagues from universities around the United States to create Activity Types. Their article, “‘Grounded’ Technology Integration: Instructional Planning Using Curriculum-Based Activity Type Taxonomies,” explains how TPACK should change the way we plan our daily lessons.

They describe a planning process where we first choose the learning outcomes that we will be working on that day or during that class session. The learning outcomes are the content. The second step they propose is choosing an activity type. The activity type is the pedagogy or how are the students going to learn the content. Finally, we can choose technologies that will support the activity type and aid the students in learning.

The simplest idea at play in TPACK is that a person who is a world-renowned expert in a subject might not be a great teacher because they lack the pedagogical knowledge to make the subject accessible and understandable. To be a great teacher, we have to combine our knowledge of the subject with our knowledge of how to teach. With the increasing focus on technology, we need to also learn how to combine technology with our content and pedagogy to create an effective learning environment.

Linking technology is depend upon the techno pedagogic content knowledge of the teacher, nature of the content, and the learning environment. Now a day so many tools and techniques are available. Many free softwares related to different subjects are available now. Teachers can use any mode of technology like power point presentations, Prezi presentations, video files, audio files, free Softwares like GeoGebra, Stellarium, Kalium, e-learning materials like e-text book, e-journals, etc. which is appropriate to the content learning objectives and group of students in front of him.

 

 

4.3. TEACHER AS A TECHNO PEDAGOGUE

A Techno- Pedagogue is a person who focuses on the uses of technology and whose expertise is in electronic pedagogy methods and theory.  A techno pedagogue is not a systems administrator or a network administrator. The techno pedagogue is a person who sits with your teachers and helps them see the practical uses and appropriate uses of technology to attain their educational goals.  This person’s expertise is grounded in educational theory curriculum development and course design.  This person stays abreast of new developments in technology and helps to fit new information to other teachers in a manner that can be understood by the less techno savvy.  The techno pedagogue also designs, model courses that use technology for other teachers to learn from.  They exist in the training of new teachers and help the programme make decisions regarding the acquisition and use of technology in the organisation.

Techno pedagogy is a type of bilingualism one foot in human needs and processes and the other in technology and all its potential. This is the hybrid method of teaching in which ICT is being used for teaching learning situations. Literally, 'pedagogy' refers to the art-science of teaching and 'techno' refers to the art-skill in handcrafting. Here, 'techno' is a qualifier, it intersects or crosses the meaning of 'pedagogy' with its own. Techno-pedagogy refers to weaving the techniques of the craft of teaching into the learning environment itself.  A techno pedagogue can oversee the design, production and even implementation of online environments, interfaces and tools that supports learning on diverse processes.  The techno pedagogue communicates and works easily with information architects and programmers as well as professionals and administrators translating from one to the other.  Needs, assessment and technical specifications are both part of the techno pedagogue daily work.  Techno pedagogy refers to the united potential of technology and to transform individual and organizational practices.  It is a rich and nuanced conversation between the technological possibilities.

Teacher as a Techno-pedagogue

Techno-pedagogical skills are the ways to make accessible and affordable quality education to all. Every teacher should know how to use technology, pedagogy and subject area content effectively in their daily classroom teaching. It is clear that merely introducing technology to the educational process is not enough. One must ensure technological integration since technology by itself will not lead to change. Rather, it is the way in which teachers integrate technology that has the potential to bring change in the education process.

For teachers to become fluent in the usage of educational technology means going beyond mere competence with the latest tools to developing an understanding of the complex web of relationships among users, technologies, practices, and tools. Teachers must understand their role in technologically-oriented classrooms. Knowledge about the technology is important in itself, but not as a separate thing.

Today the techno-pedagogical competency is very much needed for teachers in the teaching and learning process, as it facilitates effective teaching and learning. The techno-pedagogical competency is nothing but the ability of the teachers to make use of technology effectively in teaching. The teachers develop techno-pedagogical competencies then they may try to make use of this often in teaching and it will in turn make the learning process simple and effective.

 In techno pedagogy, there are three areas of knowledge, namely: content, pedagogy, and technology. Content is the subject matter that is to be taught. Technology encompasses modern technologies such as computer, Internet, digital video and commonplace technologies including overhead projectors, blackboards, and books. Pedagogy describes the collected practices, processes, strategies, procedures, and methods of teaching and learning. It also includes knowledge about the aims of instruction, assessment, and student learning.

The aim of teacher education is to develop skills and appropriate knowledge among teacher trainees for using and integrating the correct technology in an appropriate manner. Every teacher should know how to use technology, pedagogy and subject area content effectively in their daily classroom teaching.

Hence, attitude and self-efficacy towards technology play an important role. Thus, knowledge about technology is important in itself, but not as a separate and unrelated body of knowledge divorced from the context of teaching--it is not only about what technology can do, but perhaps what technology can do for them as teachers.

 

 

 

MODULE 5

CONTENT ANALYSIS IN COMMERCE

1. Content Analysis

Content is the subject matter of a lesson or a unit. Content serves as the basis for the development of curricular experiences. There are two types of content: (i) the processed content which includes text books, teacher talk, encyclopedia, supplementary materials, work books, etc. and (ii) the unprocessed content including artefacts, photographs, diaries, letters, etc. Effective learning can be organized only by analyzing the content. Content analysis is the process of breaking up the subject matter into terms, facts, concepts, principles, rules, processes, etc. the scope being appropriate for the group concerned. It has already been pointed out that content analysis is a very important step in pedagogic analysis. For this the subject matter should be analyzed and arranged in a logical sequence. This type of analysis is purely an intellectual activity that depends on the cognitive insight of a teacher.

The term content analysis has been defined by I.K. Davies as “the analysis of topic or content to be taught into its constituents or elements and then arranging them in a logical sequence”.

A content should be broken down into its elements. Each element may then be transacted by using specific tactics appropriate for realizing specific objectives. The elements are to be arranged in a logical sequence so that proper cognitive structuring Can be facilitated. The teacher has to employ his imagination, creativity and insight in ultimately synthesizing the elements of the content, to form part of the cognitive Structure of the learner.

Sources of Content (knowledge) Analysis

The teacher has to perform a number of tasks and use a number of sources to make a thorough and comprehensive content analysis. Some of these are indicated below.

1. Analysis of the prescribed curriculum

2. Thorough study of prescribed text books

3. Analysis of the needs of the learners concerned

4. Pre-determining the objectives of instruction

5. Studying the existing cognitive structure of the students concerned

6. Understanding the characteristics of the developmental stages of the pupils concerned.

 The entry behavior of students also is determined to act as the basis for analyzing the content to be taught for a given group. It should be based upon the needs and competencies of students to whom the content is to be transacted. The same content can be taught at various levels. The structure of the content for a particular group is determined by considering the cognitive level of the members.

Principles of Content Knowledge Analysis

1. Principle of inclusion: This principle states that, all the terms, facts, concepts, etc. must be identified from the content. This will help a teacher to have a thorough insight into the nature of the subject matter. While analyzing the content the teacher should make sure that no items have been omitted.

2. Principle of summarization: With regard to this principle, the whole topic dealt with is made brief and is presented as meaningful statements giving an overall view of the topic. It is summarized in the form of major facts and other items included in the topic for transaction.

3. Principle of objectivity: While stating the results of the content analysis there should not be any scope for subjectivity that might mislead a teacher.

4. Principle of sequential arrangement: The content of any topic will have to be so structured as to maintain certain logical sequencing. This orderly linkage should be maintained while presenting the results of the content analysis so that it will make the teaching that is to follow also logical.

5. Principle of clarity: This principle states that the teacher should examine minutely the terms, facts, concepts, etc. of each topic and express them lucidly. For example, while stating the concepts ‘Articles and Memorandum’ as a part of content analysis, the two distinct terms, namely, ‘Article of Association’ and ‘Memorandum of Association’ should be specified to add clarity to the concept.

How to Analyse Content Knowledge?

For analyzing the content in detail, first of all the teacher should go through the content thoroughly. Here the teacher's task is to break the whole content into elements and to categorize them into terms, facts, concepts, principles, rules, processes, etc. All these elements need not be present in all topics. Hence the teacher should include these elements judiciously. A detailed discussion regarding the nature of the various elements in content matter is given below.

1. Terms: A term is a new word having a specific meaning approved in all discussions. The teacher should be able to identify it specifically. For example, content of the topic ‘Levels of Management’ involves the terms ‘Top Level Management’, ‘Middle pevel Management’ and ‘Supervisory Level Management.’

2. Facts: The learning of any discipline requires acquisition of knowledge of a number of facts. A fact is an event or a phenomena that has occurred and agreed upon as something that exists. It is self-evident also. For example, the content of the topic ‘Levels of Management’ consists of the following facts.

1. There is a graded arrangement of managerial hierarchy.

2. There are three levels in the managerial hierarchy.

3. The three levels includes Top level, Middle level, and Supervisory level.

4. Top level consists of managers at the highest level in the managerial hierarchy.

5. Top level includes board of directors, chief executives and the departmental heads.

6. The activities of the top level centres round establishing overall, long-term goals and ways of attaining these.

7. Top level management is concerned with maintaining liaison with the outside world.

8. Top level management is responsible for the general success or failure of the organisation.

9. Middle level management consists of departmental managers.

10. The main function performed by the middle management is to act as a link between top and supervisory level of management.

11. Middle level management explains and interprets the policy decisions made at the top level to the lower level.

12. Middle level management co-ordinates the activities of various units and divisions within the same department.

13. Middle level management's task involve taking departmental decisions and inspiring lower level managers towards better performance.

14. The supervisory level of management consists of first line supervisors.

15. Supervisory level are directly in touch with the workers.

16. There is no manager below the supervisory level.

17. Supervisory level managers are also responsible for planning day to day production within the frame work provided by higher levels.

18. The supervisory level management is directly concerned with the operative jobs and management of workers.

3. Concepts: A concept is a generalised idea in the form of a mental image representing all members in a set of objects or phenomena, that possess a set of essential attributes. It forms a very significant component in content analysis. While teaching, the teacher should give more emphasis to the concepts. In the language of any scientific subject, concepts play the role of ‘vocabulary’ and hence they are of utmost importance.

Concepts can be classified into two types; (1) Major concepts, and (2) Minor concepts.

A major concept may include a number of minor concepts. While analysing the content, the teacher should also be responsible to find out the major concepts as well as minor concepts. For example, the above said concept regarding "Levels of Management can be classified as follows:

Major concept: Levels of management

Minor concepts: i. Top level management, ii. Middle level management iii. Supervisory level management

This can be further clarified with another example. Consider the major concept ‘Bank deposit accounts. This can be clarified only on the basis of three minor concepts, namely, concept of a bank, concept of deposits, and concept of bank accounts. The crucial point in any concept is the ‘essential attributes’ by which all the items are classified under a set. Hence while analysing a concept these have to be specified.

4. Principles: A principle is the meaningful linkage of two or more concepts given as a statement. Example: ‘A subordinate should receive orders and be accountable to one and only one superior’. (Principles of Management).

5. Rules: A rule is an established principle. While analysing the content, the teacher should identify the rules in it. Example: Rules for debit and credit. That is, ‘Debit the receiver and Credit the giver’ in case of real accounts.

It is evident that both principles and rules involve linkages of concepts. Hence, these concepts form the pre-requisites for learning the principle / rule. These could be specified while the content is analysed.

8. Process: A process is a set of sequential actions done in accordance with relevant principles, resulting in a new product. Example: Communication process which results in communication cycle. Here the principles and the skill for the actions are the prerequisites. Hence these should be identified and recorded while analysing processes. 

Advantages of Content Analysis

1. Helps the teacher to organise and systematise the teaching process.

2. Helps the teacher to have a clear insight into the nature of the learning material and its sequential order in the subject matter.

3. It enables the teacher to identify the terms, facts, ideas and concepts that are to be covered.

4. It makes the teacher search for pre-requisites and ensure these before teaching new items.

S. By analysing the content thoroughly the probability of omission of any point is ruled out.

6. The goals to be set in the form of objectives, the types of learning experiences required, etc. are determined by the nature of the learning material. If the content is properly analysed and the type correctly identified it would suggest the goals to be anticipated and the methods to be adopted for instruction.