205. Curriculum

 

MODULE I- CURRICULUM

1.1. Curriculum- Meaning, definitions and Foundations

Meaning

Curriculum is the crux of the whole educational process.  Without curriculum, we cannot conceive any educational endeavor.  School curriculum of a country, like its constitution reflects the ethos of that country. 

The concept of Curriculum

The term curriculum is derived from the Latin word "currere" which means path.  In this sense curriculum is the path through which the student has to go forward in order to reach the goal envisaged by education.  Usually the term curriculum is understood to mean a group of subjects prescribed for study in a particular course.  But curriculum is not confined to this narrow concept.  The curriculum should in no way be considered as synonymous with courses of study.  The courses of study list much of the content to be learnt and referring some of the major activities but these form only part of the curriculum.  Curriculum should be considered as a broad-based term encompassing every aspect concerning the study of the course.  It is now considered on the totality of experiences to which a pupil is exposed within the boundaries of the school and outside. 

Definition of Curriculum

 Curriculum has been defined by different persons in different ways.  Some base the definition on its narrow scope while others define it in a much broader sense.  Let acquaint ourselves with some of the definitions of curriculum. 

·         Curriculum is a tool in the hands of an artist (teacher) to mould his materials (Pupils) according to his ideals (objectives) in his studio (school).  – (Arthur Cunningham)

·         According to Munroe “curriculum embodies all the experiences which are utilized by the school to attain the aims of education.”

·         Curriculum is made up of everything that surrounds the learner in all his working hours     (H.L.  Laswell)

1.1.3. Foundations of Curriculum Development

1. The Influence of Philosophy to Curriculum

It is the philosophy of a society that determines the ultimate aims of its education. The social structure and its economic organizations are also based on philosophical foundations. Philosophy considers such fundamental and profound issues such as man’s place in the universe, the aims of nature, the aims of society, the relationship between man and society, and so on. Various philosophies such as Idealism, Naturalism. Pragmatism, Realism etc. have different views on these issues and hence different answers too. This difference is sure to be reflected in the respective educational systems and their curricula also.

Educators, curriculum makers and teachers must have a philosophy or philosophies that are deemed necessary for planning, implementing, and evaluating a school curriculum. The philosophy that they have embraced will help them define the purpose of the school, the important subjects to be taught, the kind of learning students must have and how they can acquire them, the instructional materials, methods and strategies to be used, and how students will be evaluated.

Likewise, philosophy offers solutions to problems by helping the administrators, curriculum planners, and teachers make sound decisions. A person’s philosophy reflects his/her life experiences, social and economic background, common beliefs, and education.

When John Dewey proposed that “education is a way of life”, his philosophy is realized when put into practice. Now, particularly in the Philippines, Dewey’s philosophy served as anchor to the country’s educational system.

 

2. The Influence of Psychology to Curriculum

Curriculum is influenced by psychology. Psychology provides information about the teaching and learning process. It also seeks answers as to how a curriculum be organized in order to achieve students’ learning at the optimum level, and as to what amount of information they can absorb in learning the various contents of the curriculum.

The following are some psychological theories in learning that influenced curriculum development:

1. Behaviorism

Education in the 20^th century was dominated by behaviorism. The mastery of the subject matter is given more emphasis. So, learning is organized in a step-by-step process. The use of drills and repetition are common.

For this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it mechanical and routine. Though many are skeptical about this theory, we can’t deny the fact the influences it had in our educational system.

2. Cognitivism

Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information, monitor and manage their thinking. The basic questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are:

§ How do learners process and store information?

§ How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?

§ How much information can they absorb?

With their beliefs, they promote the development of problem-solving and thinking skills and popularize the use of reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning, among others.

3. Humanism

Humanism is taken from the theory of Gestalt, Abraham Maslow’s theory and Carl Rogers’ theory. This group of psychologists is concerned with the development of human potential.

In this theory, curriculum is after the process, not the product; focuses on personal needs, not on the subject matter; and clarifying psychological meanings and environmental situations. In short, curriculum views founded on humanism posits that learners are human beings who are affected by their biology, culture, and environment. They are neither machines nor animals.

A more advanced, more comprehensive curriculum that promotes human potential must be crafted along this line. Teachers don’t only educate the minds, but the hearts as well.

 

3. Sociology and Curriculum

There is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum because the school exists within the societal context. Though schools are formal institutions that educate the people, there are other units of society that educate or influence the way people think, such as families and friends as well as communities.

Since the society is dynamic, there are many developments which are difficult to cope with and to adjust to. But the schools are made to address and understand the changes not only in one’s country but in the world as well.

Therefore, schools must be relevant by making its curriculum more innovative and interdisciplinary. A curriculum that can address the diversities of global learners, the explosion of knowledge through the internet, and the educational reforms and policies recommended or mandated by the United Nations.

However, it is also imperative that a country must have maintained a curriculum that reflects and preserves its culture and aspirations for national identity. No matter how far people go, it is the country’s responsibility to ensure that the school serves its purpose of educating the citizenry.

1.2. Curriculum and Syllabus

                Curriculum is not merely syllabus, because the latter is only verbal, book oriented and theoretical, while the former is not. Syllabus is much more s specific and it provides the details of the study, the hierarchical order of presenting the content, etc. It forms the basis for writing text books, preparing teacher's guide and planning lessons. Syllabus places more stress on the specific learning materials to be internalized. On the other hand, the scope of curriculum is much broader and deeper, for it comprehends every aspect of the educand’s life, seeks to satisfy all his requirements and aspires to develop every aspect of his personality. Hence, the syllabus can be considered as part and parcel of the curriculum, but the two terms should not be treated as synonyms. In addition to what is prescribed in the syllabus, the curriculum includes s various kinds of co-curricular and extra - curricular activities as well as the various aspects of the educational environment. In fact, it includes all learning experiences that would lead the learner to the anticipated goals of education.

Syllabus refers that a summary of topics which will be covered during an academic course, or a text or lecture. A syllabus, is an outline and summary of topics to be covered in an education or training course. It is descriptive. A syllabus is often either set out by an exam board, or prepared by the professor who supervises or controls the course quality.

BASISFOR COMPARISON	SYLLABUS	CURRICULUM
Meaning	Syllabus is the document that contains all the portion of the concepts covered in a subject.	Curriculum is the overall content, taught in an educational system or a course.
Origin	Syllabus is a Greek term.	Curriculum is a Latin term.
Set for	A subject	A course
Nature	Descriptive	Prescriptive
Scope	Narrow	Wide
Set out by	Exam board	Government or the administration of school, college or institute.
Term	For a fixed term, normally a year.	Till the course lasts.
Uniformity	Varies from teacher to teacher.	Same for all teachers.

 

Major components or elements of curriculum

            Curriculum is intimately related with all aspects of education. While education is a developmental process, geared towards development, curriculum is the most crucial input that provides with goal-oriented direction to that process. Education primarily deals with why and or for what purpose, but curriculum deals with what and in what way. Curriculum is the plan for guiding the educative process. This plan considers four important components namely:

1.      The objectives (decided by philosophical, sociological, and psychological considerations)

2.      The content or learning material

3.      Teaching learning strategies and activities (transaction)

4.      Evaluation.

 

1.3. Curriculum Planning Factors and Phases

1.3.1. Curriculum Planning Factors

Several factors affect all curriculum planning in meeting the needs of 21st century learners. Factors affecting curriculum planning include government rules, which in turn brings other factors into the process. Valid curriculum development requires awareness of the diversity of the target community socially, financially and psychologically. Some major factors of curriculum planning.

1. Political 4. Technological 2. Social 5. Environmental 3. Economic 6. Psychology

 

1. Political factor: Politics affect curriculum development in numerous ways. How politics influences curriculum design and planning starts with funding. Both private and public educational institutions rely on funding for hiring personnel, building and maintaining facilities and equipment. All aspects of curriculum depend on local, state and national political standards. Politics affects curriculum development from defining goals, interpreting curricular materials to approving examination systems,

2. Social factor: Society has its own expectations about the aims and objectives that should be considered when designing the curriculum. It also has a perception of what the product of the school system should look like. It is therefore necessary for curriculum designers to take in to account these societal considerations. Example Subjects which has gender education and political economy have proved difficult to include in the curriculum because of the resistance from some religious groups.

3. Economic factor: Economics influences curriculum development. Nations financing education expect an economic return from educated students contributing to the country's economy with global competition abilities in technical fields

4. Technological: Technology driven curriculum development is the norm of the 21st century. The computer technology of the 21st century influences curriculum development at every level of learning. Learning centres and classrooms increasingly provide computers as requisite interaction for studies among students. Technological multimedia use influences educational goals and learning experiences among students.

5. Environment: Environment issues affect curriculum development. World awareness and action toward reversing and ending pollution continues affecting curriculum development. Typical elementary classrooms teach recycling and healthy environmental practices. Example: Higher education in the sciences offer environmentally- focused degrees. Eg. Environmental degree, bio-technology etc.

6. Psychological factor: Psychology in general and educational psychology in particular contributes to appropriate decision making in curriculum regarding selection and organization of appropriate objectives, learning experiences and methods of evaluation as well as decisions regarding the scope of the curriculum. Psychology provides information about the teaching and learning process. It also seeks answers as to how a curriculum be organized in order to achieve students' learning at the optimum level, and as to what amount of information they can absorb in learning the various contents of the curriculum

 

1.3.2. Curriculum Planning Phases

The phases and steps in curriculum development further illustrate how the 12 essential steps progress from one to the next. It also shows the interaction and relationships of the four essential phases of the curriculum development process.

I. Planning, II. Content and Methods

II.I Implementation, IV. Evaluation and reporting

Phase 1: Planning

The planning phase lays the foundation for the entire curriculum development step. The steps in this phase include (1) Identify Issue/problem/Need, (2) Form Curriculum Development Team, (3) Conduct needs assessment and Analysis

(1) Identify Issue/problem/Need

The need for curriculum development usually emerges from a concern about a major issue or problem of one or more target audience. This section explores some of the questions that need to be addressed to define the issue and to develop the statement that will guide the selection of the members of a curriculum development team. The issue statement also serves to broadly identify, the scope of the curriculum content.

(2) Form Curriculum Development Team

Once the nature and scope of the issue has been broadly defined, the members of the curriculum development teams can be selected. Topics covered in this section include: (1) The roles and functions of team members (2) a process for selection of members of the curriculum development team and (3) Principles of Collaboration and teamwork. The goal is to obtain expertise for the area included in the scope of the curriculum content among the team members and develop an effective team.

(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

            There are two phases in the needs assessment process. The first is procedures for conducting a needs assessment. A number of techniques are aimed toward learning what is needed and by whom relative to the identified issue. Techniques covered in this section include: KAP – Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice survey; focus groups; and environmental scanning.

The second part of this needs assessment step, describes techniques on how to use the data and the results of the information gathered. Included are: ways to identify gaps between knowledge and practice; trends emerging from the data; a process to prioritize needs; and identification of the characteristics of the target audience.

Phase 2: Content and Methods

Phase II determines intended outcomes (what learners will be able to do after participation in curriculum activities), the content (what will be taught), and the methods (how it will be taught) steps include: (4) State Intended outcomes, (5) Select content, (6) Design experiential methods.

(4) State Intended Outcomes

Once the issue is defined, the curriculum team is formed, the needs assessed, analysed and prioritized, the next step is to refine and restate the issue, if needed and develop the intended outcomes or educational objectives. An intended outcome states what the learner will be able to do as a result of participating in the curriculum activities.

This section includes: (1) a definition of intended outcomes, (2) the components of intended outcomes (condition, performance, and standards), (3) examples of intended outcomes, and (4) and overview of learning behaviours.

(5) Select Content

The next challenge in the curriculum development process is selecting content that will make a real difference in the lives of the learner and ultimately society as a whole. At this point, the primary questions are: “If the intended outcome is to be attained, what will the learner need to know? What knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours will need to be acquired and practiced?

The scope (breadth of knowledge skills, attitudes, and behaviours) and the sequence (order) of the content are also discussed.

(6) Design experiential methods

After the content is selected, the next step is to design activities (learning experiences) to help the learner achieve appropriate intended outcomes. An experiential learning model and its components (i.e., experience, share, process, generalize, and apply) are discussed in this section

Additional topics include:

(1) learning styles and activities appropriate for each style, (2) A list of types of activities (with description), (3) An activity design worksheet for facilitators, (4) Brief discussions on learning environments and delivery modes.

Phase 3: Implementation

(7) Produce Curriculum Product, (8) Test and Revise Curriculum, (9) Recruit and Train facilitators

(10) Implement curriculum

(7) Produce curriculum Product

Once the content and experiential methods have been agreed upon, the actual production of curriculum materials begins. This section includes: (1) Suggestions for finding and evaluating existing materials; (2) evaluation criteria; and (3) suggestions for producing curriculum materials.

(8) Test and Revise Curriculum

This step includes suggestion to select test sites and conduct a formative evaluation of curriculum materials during the production phase. A sample evaluation form is provided

(9) Recruit and Train facilitators

It is a waste of resources to develop curriculum materials if adequate training is not provided for facilitators to implement it. Suggestions for recruiting appropriate facilitators are provided with a sample three-day training program.

(10) Implement Curriculum

Effective implementation of newly developed curriculum products is unlikely to occur without planning. Strategies to promote and use the curriculum are discussed in this step.

Phase 4: Evaluation and Reporting

(11) Design Evaluation Strategies, (12) Reporting and Securing Resources

(11) Design Evaluation Strategies

Evaluation is a phase in the curriculum development model as well as a specific step. Two types of evaluation formative and summative are used during curriculum development. Formative evaluations are used during the needs, assessment, product development and testing steps. Summative evaluations are undertaken to measure and report on the outcomes of the curriculum. This step reviews evaluation strategies and suggests simple procedures to produce valid and reliable information. A series of questions are posed to guide the summative evaluation process and a sample evaluation format is suggested.

(12) Reporting and securing resources

The final element in an evaluation strategy is “delivering the payoff (i.e., getting the results into the hands of people who can use them). In this step, suggestions for what and how to report to key shareholders, are provided and a brief discussion on how to secure resources for additional programming

MODULE 2. CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION

 

2.1. Principles of Curriculum Construction

Principles of Curriculum Construction are:

1. Principles of Child Centredness, 2. Principle of Community Centredness

3. Principle of Activity Centredness, 4. Principle of Variety

5. Principle of Co-ordinations and Integration; 6. Principle of Conservation;

7. Principle of Creativity; 8. Principle of Forward Looking;

9. Principle of Flexibility; 10. Principle of Balance;

11. Principle of Utility. 12. Principle of motivation.

13.  Principle of preparation for life. 14. Principle of comprehensiveness. 15. Principle of renewal.

1. Principle of Child Centeredness.

As modern education is child-centred, the curriculum should also be child-centred. It should be based on the child’s needs, interests, abilities, aptitude, age level and circumstances. The child should be central figure in any scheme of curriculum construction. In fact, curriculum is meant to bring about the development of the child in the desired direction so that he is able to adjust well in life.

2. Principle of Community Centeredness.

Though the child’s development and growth are the main consideration of curriculum construction, yet his social behaviour is also to be suitably developed, both the individual development and the social development of the child deserve equal attention. He is to live in and for the society. Therefore, his needs and desires must be in conformity with the needs and desires of the society in which he is to live. The values, attitudes and skills that are prevailing in the community must be reflected in the curriculum. However, the society is not static. It is dynamic. Its needs and requirements are changing with the rapid developments taking place in all fields. While working for the development, this factor cannot be ignored.

3. Principle of Activity Centeredness.

The curriculum should centre round the multifarious activities of pupils. It should provide well selected activities according to the general interests and developmental stages of children. It should provide constructive, creative and project activities. For small children, play activities should also be provided.

The purposeful activities both in the class-room and outside the class-room should be provided. It is through a network of activities that the desired experiences can be provided and consequently desirable behavioural changes can be brought about in children.

 

4. Principle of Variety.

The curriculum should be broad-based so as to accommodate the needs of varied categories of pupils, so that they are able to take up subjects and participate in activities according their capacities and interests.

The needs of pupils also change from place to place. For example, the pupils in rural areas, urban areas, and hilly areas will have different needs. The needs of boys and girls are also different. So these considerations should be reflected in the curriculum.

5. Principle of Co-ordination and Integration.

Of course, the pupils are to be provided with selected experiences through various subjects and activities but these must be well integrated. Various subjects and activities have to serve the same ultimate purpose, the achievement of the aims of education. The activities and subjects should not be put in after-tight compartments but these should be inter-related and well-integrated so as to develop the whole child.

6. Principles of Conservation.

One of the main functions of education is to preserve and transmit our cultural heritage. This is essential for human progress. Culture consists of traditions, customs, attitudes, skills, conduct, values and knowledge. However, the curriculum framers must make a suitable selection of the elements of culture, keeping n view their educational value and the developmental stage of pupils.

7. Principle of renewal

            While conserving and transmitting the cultural heritage, education should cater to renewal of the culture to suit the requirements of changing time. Hence curriculum should be so constructed s to facilitate renewal of the society.

8. Principle of Creativity.

God has created the universe and men have created other things in it. By nature, man is creative. Therefore, education should be so moulded as to enable to develop one’s creativity. The curriculum should consist such subjects that would enable children to exercise their creative powers which in turn will enable them to modify their environment according to the needs of time.

9. Principle of Forward Looking.

Education is to enable the child to lead a successful social life. So the curriculum should not cater to the present needs of the child alone. The needs of his future life should also be considered. The curriculum should also include knowledge, skills, experiences, influences etc. which will develop in the child abilities and power to make effective adjustments in the later life.

 

 

10. Principle of Flexibility.

In our age, rapid developments are taking place in various fields. Consequently the needs of society are hanging. The content of curriculum cannot be same for all times to come. It should not be static. It must be dynamic and change with the changing times. It should reflect the latest trends in the field of education and psychology.

11. Principle of Balance.

The curriculum must maintain a balance between subjects and activities, between direct and indirect experiences, between academic and vocational education, between compulsory and optional subjects, between formal and informal education, between individual and social aims of education etc.

12. Principle of Utility.

Curriculum should be useful rather than ornamental. It should not only include subjects which owe their place in it to tradition. The curriculum must have practical utility for students. So there should be some provision for technical and vocational education in the curriculum.

13. Principle of motivation.

            The curriculum should be tailored to suit the needs and interests of the pupils. It must be goal directed. It should thus motivate the pupils to actively participate in the learning process with an innate desire that is with intrinsic motivation.

14.  Principle of preparation for life.

             The school curriculum should include such elements that would prepare children for their future life. That is, they should be able to earn their livelihood sufficiently and adjust themselves with the society efficiently. It should equip the child with the caliber to meet the challenges of life.

15. Principle of comprehensiveness.

            The curriculum should be comprehensive enough to confirm to the needs of various individuals or communities. It must be broad- based to include a wide variety of subjects suited to the needs of various types of pupils and societal needs

 

2.2. Approaches to Curriculum Organization

Arrangement of the syllabus/curriculum is called Curriculum Organization. There are different approaches in curriculum organization. Some of the approaches have been discussed below:

1.    Logical Arrangements

A sequential arrangement of the topics of the syllabus is known as Logical Approach. It is based on the logic.

a. Simple to complex: E.g. Cell-Tissue-Organs-System

b. Known to unknown: E.g. From the eatable thing ‘Apple’ to a letter ‘A’ 

c. Observation to activity: E.g. Demonstration to practical

d. Concrete to abstract

2. Topical Arrangements

          It is the simplest approach to curriculum organization, where the topics from a particular subject are selected and arranged in an order. Such topics are identified from the text book of higher classes. Here the main topic content is divided in to various sub topics. It is very easy to understand to the students. It is very effective in the lower level. It will give the interest to the students because they can get idea in different directions.  

            For example, ‘banking’may be considered as a topic in commerce. It deals with  specific type service rendered to the public in terms of money transactions, meant for making desirable changes and trends in the economic as well as commercial conditions of the nation in general and the individuals in particular. A large number of concepts, principles, processes and skills are associated with this area, and thes can be considered as related parts of a whole. Since these aspects are interrelated and maintain cetain logical sequences and correlations. It is often advises that the topics should be mastered thorouly before passing on to another topic. This is known as topic approach to curriculum organization.

3. Unit approach

            As evidenced from the example of topical approach a topic may be so complex and might include a large number of items of varied difficulty, it is advisable not to cover all at the very first instance.. A spiral approach may be adopted and study of the topic may be distributed over distributed time span. For this each major topic may be divided into a number of units. Though a unit is thus only a part of the same topic it can maintain a wholistic nature , if the various ideas included in it are properly organized .

For eg: Savings bank can be a unit in banking, commercial banking may be another, Banks and industrial development may  be still another.Here the major topic is ‘banking’but it is analysed into a number of units based on the special area being discussed. Each of these can be considered as an entity. But these can be meaningfully linked to give the learners a wholstic idea of the topic banking. Such an approach will be more psychological and have more sound. This approach in curriculum planning is said to be the unit approach.

Generally speaking when a topic is complex and very large and involve a number of units dealing with specific aspects that, could be meaningfully integrated It will be advisable to have the unit approach. When this approach is being followed, care should be  taken to effectively link all the units of the same topic as and when opportunities arise.

 

4. Psychological Arrangements

          When the sequential order is based on the psychological principles of teaching and learning is said to be Psychological Approach. It is assumed that some topic will form the basis for other topics. Psychological principles of learning such as readiness, reinforcement, interests, and individual differences should be carefully followed while the arrangements.  The content arrangement is strongly based on the psychological principles not simple and common sense.

5. Concentric and Spiral Approaches

The whole curriculum is spread over a number of years.  a general treatment of almost all the topics are attempted at the beginning and it is developed in successive years according to the mental development of the pupils.  In the beginning of the course, the whole aspect is given to pupils in a simplified way.  In the next year more and more details of its parts are added.  It follows the maximum of teaching, such as from whole to part, simple to complex, easy to difficult etc. Among educationist of modern times, Burner is the main exponent of the approach is maintained.  Sometimes this approach is referred to as concentric approach.  But the term “spiral approach” is preferred to the other.  The term spiral gives the additional implication that while attempting gradation the linkage too is taken care of and the continuing of the topic concerned is never broken.  While conceiving it as concentric only the widening of the scope is indicated but the linkage is not taken care of.

 

3. Concentric Arrangements

          Each and every year, the knowledge given about the concern topic is increased. First year they can get the knowledge about the topic minimum, next year they will get deeper and elaborately. Like this every year they will get the knowledge deeper and broader.  E.g. the knowledge about the Cell is increased every year. Here the students can learn the topic repeatedly and thoroughly.

 

Concentric curriculum

Conclusion:

          Curriculum should develop the all-round development/personality among the students and also that should be keeping similar in all the states. A well-integrated curriculum should be framed which include the study of science, language and humanities. The correct combination of those can develops an all-round personality. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Module 3

Types of Curriculum (10 hrs)

3.1. Subject centered, Community based, Core, Explicit, Implicit Curriculums

 

1. Traditional or Subject-centred Curriculum:

The traditional curriculum which has been in vogue for a sufficiently long time, is conceived in terms of subjects of study. Such a curriculum is organized with the greatest emphasis on knowledge including facts, concepts, principles, processes and skills in the subject concerned. All stress was on the cognitive attainment of the learners rather than on their personal and social development.

2. Community based curriculum

Community based curriculum refers to a wide variety of instructional methods and programs that educators use to connect what is being taught in schools to their surrounding communities, including local institutions, history, literature, cultural heritage, and natural environments. Community-based learning is also motivated by the belief that all communities have intrinsic educational assets and resources that educators can use to enhance learning experiences for students. Synonyms include community-based education, place-based learning, and place-based education, among other terms.

Proponents of community-based generally argue that students will be more interested in the subjects and concepts being taught, and they will be more inspired to learn, if academic study is connected to concepts, issues, and contexts that are more familiar, understandable, accessible, or personally relevant to them. By using the “community as a classroom,” advocates would argue, teachers can improve knowledge retention, skill acquisition, and preparation for adult life because students can be given more opportunities apply learning in practical, real-life settings—by researching a local ecosystem, for example, or by volunteering at a nonprofit organization that is working to improve the world in some meaningful way.

       A core concept explored across the disciplines through community-based projects is the relationship between human and natural systems.  Exploring this “missing link” in traditional high school curriculum allows students to appreciate how the natural world supports our social and economic activity in our region, from the power generated from waterfalls and the commerce made possible by waterways, to how neighborhood development was impacted by our hills and wetlands.  Engaging students in learning through community-based learning: community service, civics and citizenship, environmental education, student action teams, and work-based learning.

Involving students, parents and other partners in curriculum-making. When reviewing the curriculum, some schools organize forums to engage students, community members and parents whose voices may be less frequently heard in curriculum conversations.

Building links with organisations to develop the curriculum. These include other schools such as a small cluster of primary and secondary schools developing a curriculum, community and health services, business and industry, cultural organisations and local government.

Students learn first-hand about community needs through ongoing service learning, a method of teaching, learning and reflecting that combines academic classroom curriculum with meaningful service. Research consistently shows that service-learning is a powerful way to engage students with diverse learning styles and levels of academic achievement, and that students who engage in service-learning projects in high school are more likely to be community leaders later in life.

3. Core Curriculum

Traditionally core curriculum includes all required content areas in the school programme. More recently, the term ‘core’ refers to type of course such as general education, united studies, common learning’s, social living and integrated programme. A curriculum based on the essential learning and a common scheme of studies is referred to as a core curriculum.

It refers to the body of knowledge, skills and attitudes expected to be learned by all students, generally related to a set of subjects and learning areas that are common to all students, such as languages, mathematics, arts, physical education, science and social studies.

Core-curriculum definitions

Ø  A set of school or college courses in subjects considered essential to a suitable education, as in providing necessary skills or common cultural knowledge.

Ø  The definition of core curriculum is a set of courses that are considered basic and essential for future class work and graduation.

Math, science, English, history and geography are an example of core ``curriculum in a middle school or high school.

The courses or other components of an educational program which are foundational, prerequisite, or mandatory, as opposed to the elective, secondary, or variable components of a program.

Characteristics of Core Curriculum:

 (i) It requires a great degree of flexibility in respect of content.

(ii) It utilizes the problems of personal and social development which is common to all youth.

(iii) The core curriculum is characterized by a common scheme of studies.

(iv) It encourages the use of the problem solving technique to face different problems.

(v) Learning experiences are based on local situations.

 

Merits of core curriculum

Ø  Common learning provided to all learners

Ø  Common learning is essential for the learners to function effectively in the society.

Ø  It acts as the basis for further study.

Demerits

Ø  Selection of content may difficult

Ø  Often it does not provide essential material

Ø  Assessment may also affect the performance of student

4. Explicit Curriculum

Explicit curriculum refers to the plan for learning set by a teacher or school board. A class's explicit curriculum is what that class is designed to teach. This includes the topics covered by the class and any documents included in the lesson plan, such as textbooks, films and web sources. Explicit curriculum also refers to a teacher's plan for her class, regardless of whether this plan is seen by her students.

5. Implicit Curriculum

Implicit, or hidden, curriculum refers to lessons that students take from teachers' attitudes and the school environment. This learning can be either conscious or unconscious. For instance, the location of a teacher's desk at the front of a classroom underscores his authority and positions him as the center of the class's attention. A school's rigid class schedule may make students perceive learning as an inflexible and authoritative process. Implicit curriculum can also refer to how educational institutions reflect larger social norms. A teacher who models a society's dismissive attitude toward a subject, for example, will communicate that attitude to his students.

Explicit vs. Implicit Curriculam

The difference between explicit and implicit curriculum is the difference between what is formally intended to be taught by a class versus what happens to be taught by an environment. The explicit curriculum refers to intentional instructive techniques. A teacher can purposefully change the environment of her class as an intentional learning experience. For example, she may have the class role-play a setting where normal classroom restrictions do not apply. This explicit curriculum is still affected by the implicit curriculum, because the underlying structures of the classroom and school continue to teach students.

Teachers and administrators may be aware of how implicit curriculum operates within their school. However, that operation is not a result of intentional decisions made specifically to teach students. For instance, students may learn about authority from a teacher's emphasis on tardiness. However, unless this is a specific teaching strategy that has been set out ahead of time, it is an example of implicit curriculum.

 6. Child Centered Curriculum:

The modern teaching-learning process aims at the all-round development of the child-physical, intellectual, emotional, social, spiritual and so on. It has been giving stress on the child or the learner as the center of all kinds of curricular and co-curricular activities.

The NPE 1986 has emphasized the child-centered approach, “A warm welcoming and encouraging approach in which all concerned share solicitude for the needs of the child is the best motivation for the child to attend school and learn”.

In child centered curriculum the child occupies a pivotal position. That is why, modern education is popularly known as “Paedocentric” or child centered education, particularly at the primary stage.

Characteristics of Child-Centered Curriculum:

 (i) In child-centered curriculum the teacher gives emphasis on the child rather than the subject, he plans to teach.

(ii) Emphasis is given on the child’s abilities, interests, growth and development.

(iii) The child’s experiences are taken as the basis of teaching and tools of various curricular and co-curricular activities.

(iv) The learner is provided with all kinds of learning experiences according to his capabilities and interests.

(v) The child is to grow on his own, but the teacher is to guide and motivate him.

The teacher is to identify the abilities and interests of the child and accordingly, to provide and promote his learning experiences properly and efficiently.

The child occupies the center of the curriculum, which is the sum-total of all learning experiences provided by the school.

Advantages:

i. This type of curriculum keeps more emphasis on the problem of the children rather than subject matter.

ii. It helps correlation in learning.

iii. There is a scope for active participation of the child in the learning process.

iv. Play way approach helps the child to learn in a natural way.

7. Hidden curriculum 

Hidden curriculum refers to the unwritten, unofficial, and often unintended lessons, values, and perspectives that students learn in school. While the “formal” curriculum consists of the courses, lessons, and learning activities students participate in, as well as the knowledge and skills educators intentionally teach to students, the hidden curriculum consists of the unspoken or implicit academic, social, and cultural messages that are communicated to students while they are in school.

The hidden-curriculum concept is based on the recognition that students absorb lessons in school that may or may not be part of the formal course of study—for example, how they should interact with peers, teachers, and other adults; how they should perceive different races, groups, or classes of people; or what ideas and behaviors are considered acceptable or unacceptable. The hidden curriculum is described as “hidden” because it is usually unacknowledged or unexamined by students, educators, and the wider community. And because the values and lessons reinforced by the hidden curriculum are often the accepted status quo, it may be assumed that these “hidden” practices and messages don’t need to change—even if they are contributing to undesirable behaviors and results, whether it’s bullying, conflicts, or low graduation and college-enrollment rates.

3.2. Differentiated Curriculum to meet Individual differences- gifted, slow learners, under achievers and learning disabled

3.2.1 What is differentiated curriculum?

Every child is unique. Differentiated instruction is a teaching philosophy based on the premise that teachers should adapt instruction to student differences. Differentiated instruction is a strategy used by educators to meet the special needs of students. While its use is more prominent in special education classrooms, it is also an important strategy for modern classrooms that consist of diverse cultures, learning styles and academic challenges. An effective curriculum for students is essentially a basic curriculum that has been modified to meet their individual needs. Differentiated curriculum is one that is individualized to meet the diverse needs of all of the students in one class. This includes students with learning disabilities as well as a number of other disabilities.

How can curriculum be differentiated?: Teachers can differentiate three aspects of the curriculum: content, process, and products

·         Content (what is learned)

·          Process (how the content is taught)

·         Product (how the learning is observed and evaluated)

1. The Gifted Learners: Marland (1972) defined gifted students as: "Gifted and talented children are those identified by professionally qualified persons who by virtue of outstanding abilities are capable of high performance".

How can the curriculum be modified to meet the needs of the gifted learners?

Modifying Content: Content consists of ideas, concepts, descriptive information, and facts. Content, as well as learning experiences can be modified through:

·         Acceleration -double promotion, skip grades

·         Compacting- This strategy encourages teachers to assess students before beginning a unit of study or development of a skill. Students who do well on the pre-assessment do not continue work on what they already know.

·         Variety of experiences.

·          Reorganization of topics-challenging and interesting ones first

·         Flexible pacing - When possible, students should be encouraged to move through content areas at their own pace. If they master a particular unit, they need to be provided with more advanced learning activities, not more of the same activity.

·         Use of more advanced or complex concepts, abstractions, and materials

·         Provide thematic, broad-based, and integrative content, rather than just single-subject areas.

·         Providing an interdisciplinary approach is another way of modifying curriculum gifted students benefit greatly from curriculum experiences that cross or go beyond traditional content areas, particularly when they are encouraged to acquire an integrated understanding of knowledge and the structure of the disciplines.

Modifying Process

·         To modify process, activities must be restructured to be more intellectually demanding. Students need to be challenged by questions that require a higher level of response or by open-ended questions that stimulate inquiry, active exploration, and discovery.

·         Although instructional strategies depend on the age of the students and the nature of the disciplines involved, the goal is always to encourage students to think about subjects in more abstract and complex ways.

·         Activity selection should be based on student interests, and activities should be used in ways that encourage self-directed learning.

·         Every teacher should know a variety of ways to stimulate and encourage higher level thinking skills.

·         Group interaction and simulations, flexible pacing, and guided self-management area few of the methods for managing class activities that support process modification

Modifying Environment

·         Gifted students learn best in a receptive, non-judgmental, student-centered environment that encourages inquiry and independence, includes a wide variety of materials, provides some physical movement, is generally complex, and connects the school experience with the greater world.

·         Although all students might appreciate such a n environment, for students who are gifted it is essential that the teacher has to establish a climate that encourages them to question, exercise independence, and u s e their creativity in order to be all that they can be.

Modifying Product Expectation and Student Response

·         Teachers can encourage students to demonstrate what they have learned in a wide variety of forms that reflect both knowledge and the ability to manipulate ideas. For example, instead of giving a written or oral book report, students might prefer to design a game around the theme and characters of a book.

·         Products can be consistent with each student's preferred learning style.

·         They should address real problems concerns and audiences: synthesize rather than summarize information: and include a self-evaluation process.

2. Slow learners:

A 'slow learner' is not a diagnostic category, it is a term people use to describe a student who has the ability to lean necessary academic skills, but at a rate and depth below, average same age peers. In order to grasp new concepts, a slow learner needs more time, more repetition, and often more resources from teachers to be successful. Reasoning skills are typically delayed, which makes new concepts difficult to learn. But they are not different in any other aspect than regular children. Thus, students can be easily helped by parents and teachers in achieving their goals with instructional changes. Slow learners are of below average intelligence (1Q 75-90), but are just above the educable mentally challenged (1Q 65-80).

How can the curriculum be modified to meet the needs of the slow learners?

Vary the pace of instruction: Assess the learning speed of each student. Break up the classroom into groups based on learning speed. Use tools, such as interactive instructional software and workbooks, to allow students to learn at their own pace. Adapt your lessons to meet the cultural and language needs of students. Assign homework and classroom activities based on ability, By working with students one-on-one and in groups. Provide step-by-step instructions to slower learners, Repeat information when necessary, allowing them to answer fewer questions and spend more time on each task. Reward students based on individualized progress.

3. Underachievers: An underachiever is a person who fails to achieve his or her potential or does not do a s well as expected. Of particular interest is academic underachievement. Studies of individuals who have not realized their apparent potential have identified learning disabilities, ADHD, and many other educational problems, and subsequently enabled methods of addressing these problems. Current theories among academic scholars prefer to address underperformance problems with remedial help

Characteristics of the Underachievers: Rebellious attitude, Frequently lying, Fear/phobia with regard to success, day dreaming, Inattentiveness, etc.

How to help the Underachievers?

Teacher should take up prolonged and planned sessions with the underachievers. They need the warmth, understanding and praise of other, A collective approach including parents, peers, teachers, counsellors is required. In case the Underachievers hail from the under privileged and economically backward sections, they need a different kind of tool such as motivation combined with stimulus.

4. The Learning Disabled

Learning Disability is a neurological disorder that affects the bran's ability to receive process, store and respond to information. The term learning disability is used to describe theseeming unexplained difficulty a person of at least average intelligence has in acquiring basic academic skills. These skills are essential for success at school and at workplace and for coping with life in general.

Learning Disability is not a single disorder. It is a term that refers to a group of disorders in listening, speaking, reading, writing and mathematics. The Learning Disabled are in most ways normal average or above average intelligence, do not have any form of mental retardation sensory or visual impairment, but they struggle to keep up with people of the same age in learning and regular functioning. Attention deficit and hyperactivity are two important features of the Learning Disabled.

How can the curriculum be modified to meet the needs of the learning disabled?

Students with learning disabilities (LD) have a way of challenging almost every general education teacher because of the learning characteristics that are displayed by many kids with learning disabilities. As every veteran teacher realizes, students with learning disabilities may be less engaged in the learning task, unable to cope with multiple instructions, and poorly organized in their thinking and work habits. When these deficits are coupled with fairly severe academic deficits the result can be a student who is very challenging for general education teachers. Some general teaching tips for differentiating instruction can be offered as initial guidelines for teachers when challenged by students with learning disabilities.

First, the general structure of most classrooms can be greatly enhanced and can be specifically designed to facilitate active engagement by students with learning disabilities by following just a few simple guidelines.

Next, consideration must be given to structuring lessons and developing alternative lessons for students with learning disabilities.

Ten Tactics to Foster Attention Skills: U s e a highly structured class, D i s p l a y classroom rule, Post daily class schedule, Train on class cues, Use two desk, Use intentional distractions, Keep desk clear, Visually monitor students, Provide colour organizers, Use peer buddies

Ten Tactics for structuring the lessons for students with Learning disabilities: Provide clear direction, provide lesson outline, develop alternative activities, plan for frequent break, use physical activities, use clear worksheet, decrease task length, check assignment notebook, develop alternative assessments, Turn to your partner and explain.

3.3. NCF, KCF And Its Relevance in Commerce Education

 

NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005) is one of four National Curriculum Frameworks published in 1975, 1988, 2000 and 2005 by the National Council of Educational Research and Training. The Framework provides the framework for making syllabus, textbooks and teaching practices within the school education program in India. The NCF 2005 document draws its policy basis from earlier government reports on education as Learning Without Burden and National Policy of Education 1986-1992 and focus group discussion. After wide ranging deliberations, 21 National Focus Group Position Papers have been developed under the aegis of NCF-2005. The state of art position papers provided inputs for formulation of NCF-2005. The document and its offshoot textbooks have come under different forms of reviews in the press.

The approach and recommendations of NCF-2005 are for the entire educational system. A number of its recommendations, for example, focus on rural schools. The syllabus and textbooks based on it are being used by all the schools, but NCF-based material is also being used in many State schools.

NCF 2005 has been translated into 22 languages and has influenced the syllabii in 17 States. The NCERT gave a grant of Rs.10 lakh to each State to promote NCF in the language of the State and to compare its current syllabus with the syllabus proposed, so that a plan for future reforms could be made. Several States have taken up this challenge. This exercise is being carried out with the involvement of State Councils for Educational Research and Training [SCERT] and District Institutes of Education and Training [DIET].

The document is divided into 5 areas:

1.                  Learning and knowledge

2.                  Perspectives of NCF

3.                  Curricular area, school stages and assessment

4.                  School and classroom environment

5.                  Systematic reforms

Relevance in vocational education

·                     To make learning a joyful.

·                     It emphasizes on learning without burden.

·                     Move away from textbooks to be a basis for assessment.

·                     To remove stress from children.

·                     It recommends major changes in the syllabus.

·                     To develop a sense of self-reliance an

·                     To develop a child centered approach.

·                     To promote universal enrolment and retention up to the age of 14.

·                     To inculcate the feelings of oneness, democracy and unity among the students.

·                     The curriculum is enabled to strengthen our national education and to enable the new generation re-evaluate.

·                     J.P. Naik, has described equality, quality and quantity as the exclusive triangle for Indian education.

·                     It has ensured that irrespective of caste, creed, religion and sex all are provided with a standard curriculum.

 

KERALA CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK

The existing curriculum in Kerala is based on Kerala Curriculum Framework 2007. Activity oriented learning is emphasized in the syllabus and the teaching process is student centric. teacher’s role is more like that of a scaffolder than that of a guide or instructor. even though there were serious concerns about the existing syllabus, it was later well admitted and appreciated by experts all over India. It has certainly brought about a positive change in class rooms and the benchers who were not responding getting involved.

There may be a need for revision of syllabus as periodic revision of syllabus inevitable. But this is that it should be carried out after elaborate preparation and deliberation. Prior to the formation of a framework, discussion with all teacher organization is needed. The main contention against the present curriculum reform is that it is being done without extensive discussion on the framework and textbook revision is progressing and nearing completion.

Discussions at various levels were conducted before the finalization of KCF 2007. This is not done in the care of present curriculum revision. KCF2007 was introduced with the strong support of NCF 2005 which was a paradigm shift from the existing system. Curriculum reforms should be multi-faceted and comprehensive.

 

 RELEVANCE IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Though as a part of educational policy of 1986, extensive planning for vocational education had been done. In order to implement vocational education effectively, there must be thorough changes in all fields of education such as curriculum, text books, teacher training, monitoring, evaluation etc.

In Kerala, there are 3 types of institutions in vocational education sector.

1.                  Technical high schools

2.                  Technical high schools and higher secondary schools under IHRD

3.                  Vocational higher secondary

The approach of KCF to vocational education includes;

·                     An activity-based curriculum that equips the learner to acquire self-confidence and self-sufficiency should be introduced

·                     The learner should be given opportunity to interact with his peers and society.

·                     The learners should utilize their reasoning ability to analyze and react to learning experience.

·                     The learner should be able to choose a vocation of their choice from the high school level.

·                     Vocational education should be given more importance at higher secondary level.

·                     Academic subjects should also be included.

·                     As part of the course, the learners must visit various institutions that are related to their particular vocation and must get trained. Hospitals and industrial units should be utilized for this purpose.

·                     Workshop training should be provided with the assistance of experts and the local work units.

·                     Dairy farm should be ensured where courses on agriculture and cattle rearing are given.

·                     Case study should be carried out to understand the issues in the job market.

·                     Opportunities should be made to hold interviews with experts in the field and there should also be provision for conducting short term projects.

·                     Scope for practical application should be given more importance than learning theory.

 

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that knowledge and labor are complementary. We must realize the value of labor in developing and transforming the society. In this context, education should focus on the development of a positive attitude to labor and inculcate in all children, the ability to do work.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MODULE 4

LEARNING RESOURCES IN COMMERCE (10 HRS)

4.1. Library and Its Organisation

It is an important function of the school to provide the children with extra information when they want it. For this information, they may require to consult reference or general books. Library has come to stay as an established medium of extra information in the schools, particularly in those schools which do not aim merely at preparing their pupils for the examination. No regular school can afford to be without a library. It has become an integral part of every good school. Library helps to foster in students a love for extra reading the co-curricular activities, group projects, work on assignments etc. need a good library.

Individual reading supplements teaching. By reading pupils gather information’s which help them to understand the social world in which they live. They get answers to some of their own questions, enlarge their imagination and continue their learning even after for­mal education.

In library there should be three categories of reading materials:

(i) Text-books and reference-books.

(ii) Magazines and Newspapers.

(iii) Supplementary readers.

Teacher may guide the students in selecting books and journals and reading them. In some cases, students may discuss with the teacher what they have read and summaries.

Library facilities in schools

In our schools there are two types of libraries:

(i) General school library, and

 (ii) Commerce department library.

(i) General School Library

In most of our schools, there is a general school library which contains bodes, magazines on all subjects. In such a library there should be separate section for commerce subject books. For teachers there should be good bodes on methodology of teaching, historical background of topics and the contribution of famous persons in vari­ous fields of commerce subjects. Some material on teaching of com­merce can be obtained from N.C.E.R.T. In library, some books on recreational activities be available to students.

 (ii) Commerce Department Library

If resources permit there should be a separate commerce depart­ment library. It may be housed in one of the rooms of the commerce department. The librarian or in charge of it must. Classify the books properly so that the students do not find any difficulty in getting the books issued Commerce teacher should keep himself with the latest bodes or magazines on the subject and make addition in the library. A number of copies of good book should be purchased. A few copies of the prescribed text-book may be purchased for the use of poor students.

Importance of Commerce Library

Library has a key role in scheme of education. Class-room teach­ing must be supplemented with the dissemination of knowledge through library. In commerce subjects’ students are required to do a lot of practice which they can do so most efficiently in commerce library can help the students tackle all types of problems emerging from different topics prescribed in their syllabus. They are also acquainted with different types of approaches in solving problems.

Class-room teaching sometimes leaves many gaps and doubts. They can be removed if the students make use of good books available in the library. Commerce teacher can help the students in the selection of good books in the library.

A commerce library is not only a source of learning and inspi­ration for students but it also serves the need of teachers. A teacher must keep his knowledge ever fresh and up-to-date; this is possible only by making a free use of commerce library. He can also learn the latest methods of teaching of commerce subjects from the new books avail­able in the library. Thus, a good commerce library helps to keep the lamp of commerce knowledge burning so as to kindle light in the minds of the students as also the teachers.

Efficient ways for the use of commerce library in school

In most schools, there are general libraries which encourage the students to make use of libraries, but in such a library the students cannot get proper guidance for removing their deficiency in a par­ticular subject. For this a separate library of the subject concerned is essential. A separate library for commerce is a great necessity for rendering proper help to needy students. Such a library can be housed in a room in commerce department and can be put under the charge of commerce teacher. There should be a period of library reading in the time-table so as to enable the students of every class to make use of library. A separate commerce library is essential because of the following reasons:

(i) Separate arrangement of commerce library helps to bring efficiency in the organisation of library services.

(ii) Commerce teacher remains in constant touch with the latest books in commerce.

(iii) It provides a sense of separate identity to commerce and helps to inculcate interest in the subject.

(iv) The students get better library services.

(v) It helps the activities of commerce club.

(vi) It can be of great help to gifted and bright students.

Thus, it is essential that all efforts be made to establish a separate commerce library in every school. A well-equipped library is useful only when it is properly used by the teachers and students.

 Suggestion given below will help in the proper use of commerce library.

(i) There should be an in charge of library bodes. Even if there is a librarian, the commerce teacher should be actively associated with functioning of commerce library.

(ii) The commerce teacher should himself read library books only than he can suggest bodes to the students.

(iii) While teaching in the class, the commerce teacher should make reference to related books or magazines in the li­brary.

(iv) The teacher should give some assignment or work based on certain books in the library.

(v) The students should be involved in the maintenance and classification of library room.

(vi) There should be certain meetings of commerce club where the students have to study library books for active partici­pation.

(vii) Library room should be made attractive.

(viii) There should be proper display of new books on the bulle­tin board, along with brief comments.

(ix) There should be some provision in the time-table for li­brary reading. Teacher should see that every student goes to the library and borrows books regularly from the li­brary.

(x) There should be some type of test based on suggested bodes from the library.

Thus, it is clear that a good commerce library is quite useful for developing good study habits in students. Library also is quite useful to students for updating their knowledge and develops a taste for the subject. To achieve maximum benefits commerce teacher shall have to take pains by putting in more efforts.

Commerce library should contain useful visual aids needed in teach­ing of commerce subjects. The educational material about commerce (e.g. pictures, charts etc.) is displayed on the walls of library.

In commerce library there should be a good collection of useful books in commerce subjects. It is the duty of the commerce teacher to make a wide selection of books for the library. The books are kept in separate Almirahs under various heads:

(i) The Prescribed Text-Books of Commerce for different classes.

(ii) Books on Teaching of Commerce meant for teacher. Such books should be of high standard, published in India as also in for­eign countries.

(iii) Books of Recreational Activities. In our country only a limited number of such books are published. Good books published in foreign countries are procured for this purpose.

(iv) Supplementary Books. We must not depend only on text­books for complete and Ml information. To make our knowledge most up-to-date we have to supplement our information through variety of way.

(v) They may be reference books and other material, periodicals, reports, hand-books and other material. Such material is stored sepa­rately.

 

4.2. COMMUNITY RESOURCES

The main aim of using the community resources is to give equal opportunity to all the students to take part in such activities and to enrich their interest and understanding the contributions made by other streams to the teaching of commerce. Moreover, it should always be executed through the active and willing co-operation of the students, staff and school management.

MEANING

A community provides ‘concrete’, ’saleable’ and ‘tangible’ resources which are extremely ‘dynamic’ ‘interesting’ and ‘meaningful’ for the teaching and learning of commerce.    It    is    not    enough    for a   child            to have knowledge about factories, farms, council sessions, museums and commercial enterprises etc. He must have the acquaintance with all these. A community is a child’s laboratory for having first hand learning about the ways of living. Community resources are the people and places members of a given community can turn to for assistance in filling an unmet need. The organizations can be public or private.

The significance of Community Resources

There are four main reasons why community resources are valuable.

1. Teaching and learning become relevant, because they can be performed through the children’s social experiences.

2. The community provides excellent opportunities for social action and for the development of intellectual and social skills.

3. The school and community can become closer to each other.

4. The children learn more about the community, become involved in its affairs, and thus become better citizens. Even in ancient times educational theorists had argued that using children’s experiences as a stepping stone to newer and newer knowledge will be more effective than merely depending upon text books. This is a very sound theory.

Methods of Utilization of Community Resources

There are basically two ways: I. Taking the school to the community ll. Bringing the community to the school

I. Taking the school to the community - This includes:

1. Field Trips

Educational visits to banks, insurance office, factories, business houses, stock exchange markets, super markets, production centres and exhibitions help students to explore their environment. It helps the teacher to teach lessons with suitable practical examples. Experiences gained by these visits are not easily forgotten. Since it is a practical experience it provides opportunity to acquire knowledge and understand the subject. It links not only the class room subject but also provides general education. It provides useful contacts with the real world.

Every visit should be preceded by preparation in the form of a short introductory talk explaining the nature and object of the visit and suggesting special points or factors to be looked for. At the time of the actual visit the teacher should correlate the subject matter with the real field. It is equally important that the result of the visit should be consolidated by questioning and discussion so that it may fulfill the designed purpose. The teacher can ask the students to write one assignment about the field visit. Visits without the preparation and follow up will, serve only the entertainment purpose. The teacher must also realise the responsibility at the time of conducting field visit.  He should get the parents’ consent in the written form for pupils to take part in visits outside the school He should also get the official permission from the head of the institution and from the higher authority of the place in which he is going to conduct a field visit.

2. Community Service which includes cleaning of public places, attending the sick, social service in fairs, planting of trees, digging of manure pits, making of drains, etc. All these activities help in developing a sense of dignity of labour, fellow-feeling, etc.

3. Social Survey Clubs: Social survey clubs should be organised in schools, which could undertake to investigate some of the urgent needs and problems of the surrounding areas, eg: the poor condition of roads, non-availability of toilets in houses, unhealthy sanitary conditions, low percentage of literacy, the lack of proper drainage system, etc.

4. Visits to Banks and Financial Institutions

Visits to the local banks may be arranged so that, students may be able to learn the different activities of the bank. As soon as students reach the bank, they should be taken to the particular place and introduced to person or a person, who has been provided by the bank to explain various activities of the bank or its services to the public.  If the work of the bank does not suffer, they may be introduced to the person at each counter. Thus visits to the bank provide good opportunities to students to learn working of the bank and get an idea of its real working.

5. Excursions

5.1. Excursions to industrial Centres: It is very difficult to explain in details about the actual working of various industries in India. Whatever explanations are given by the teachers are theoretical in nature. They cannot become real and lasting unless they personally see the proper  working  of  various departments of the industry. Students may be taken to the place, where raw materials are kept. They may be shown the various processes through which the raw material passes. Ultimately they should be shown the finished products. In these processes students will actually observe the working of each section. The working of  each section should be explained by the person incharge of the section.

The important reason why students should be taken to the factories and other industrial concerns is that they may be able to see the factories and also see how goods are produced from raw materials. Thus excursions to industrial centres will benefit students and enrich their experiences about the working of the industries in India.

5.2. Excursion to Places of Geographical importance:

Excursions to places of Geographical importance should be arranged to explain to students the need and importance of locality and regions of the country and their valuable contribution in national as well as international interests, with special reference to its impact on trade, commerce and industry of the country. Students should be shown the places, which are the sources of supply of raw materials of various kinds to large number of industries. Side by side students should also be explained the significant contribution and impact of the goods, exported to other countries of the world. Only by visiting the places of geographical importance, students can have permanent contrived real experiences, because they visualize the presence and availability of plenty of raw material in different parts of the country.

6. Visit to Industries

Visits to important industries and big business houses may be arranged at regular intervals the students of commerce are able to get the real knowledge as to know how the business work, they may be led to the different sections of the business and should actually watch how the papers of business transactions are actually prepared. For example, they may see how debit and credit notes are prepared, how the invoice prepared, how the hundi and bill of exchange is prepared and how they are entered into several books of accounts and how the accounting books of maintained in that firm. The system of filling and the labour saving devices may be explained to students.

II. Bringing the community to the school

1. Celebration of Festivals: Our festivals are the ‘visible’ embodiments of our culture. They form an integral part of community life. They can be exploited for enriching educational programmes and activities in schools. we have four types of festivals. i. Religious festivals such as Shiva Rathri, Durga Ashtami, Id, Moharram, Easter, Christmas, etc. ii. Cultural festivals of national and international importance such as Onam, Christmas, Holi, Deepavali and Dussehra. iii. National festivals such as Independence Day, Republic Day, Gandhi Jayanthi, etc. iv. Celebrations of the birthdays of National religious and political leaders such as Budha, Sankara, Sri Narayana, Nehru, Netaji, Tilak, Bhagat singh, etc.

By organising the birthdays of the national heroes, the students may be inspired by high ideals for which they lived, the dangers they faced, the tremendous odds they had to overcome and the efforts they had to make before attaining their objectives. It must be stressed upon the students that they must dedicate themselves to the service of the nation to which they belong.

2. Parent teacher association.

The co-operation between the school and the home can serve various functions. On the one hand, the parents come to know what work the school is doing for their children, and on the other the teachers begin to appreciate the value of what the home is doing for the pupils. For the around development of the child, meaningful co-operation between the school and the home is necessary. PTA is the most effective means of promoting this co-operation.

3. Inviting Guest Speakers

Commerce is a very wide subject. It requires expert ideas from eminent scholars in their subject specialization. In such a situation, guest speakers should be called upon to deliver lectures which will help the students to enrich their knowledge. For subject like Tax, Marketing, Company Law etc. people like Chartered Accountants, Marketing managers, Lawyers etc can be called upon respectively to share their practical experience. Students get opportunities to hear eminent persons who discuss the actual problems regarding various occupations.

 

 

 

 

Different Types of Activities Conducted in schools for Community Experience (Role of teacher)

1. Commerce Association or Forum: Commerce Association or forum may be organised in the school under the leadership of the commerce teacher. He should take necessary initiative steps to run it. It should have elected president secretaries, cashiers, executive members and general body members; it should conduct the various activities of the department, i.e. other co-curricular activities.

1.         It provides a valuable link between students and staff and makes a worthwhile contribution to the smooth running of the departments.

2.         It provides students with useful practical experiences in real situations.

3.         It increases the relationship among students,

4.         It provides opportunity to the students to take various responsibilities.

5.         It may conduct the meeting with former students to know about their work and experiences in business.

6.         It can arrange the guest lectures with the great businessmen and professional men to know about their jobs and services.

7.         It can conduct film sessions related to work of committee and subjects.

8.         It is the mother organisation for all activities related to commerce.

All the office bearers appointed by the students are responsible for the organisation of the programme and thereby they gain useful business experience.

2. Exhibitions:

The commerce department can conduct exhibitions on important occasions. They can exhibit charts, diagrams, graphs, models, pictures and scrap book collection of coins and rupees used at various periods.

3. Debates and competitions:

The commerce association or department in the school can organize debates in commerce subjects. It can also organize elocution and essay competitions on various topics in commerce and in general. Students of other school inside and outside the town can also be invited. It can also organize annual competitions in short hand and typewriting- Prizes and certificates be given to outstanding students. Because of these competitions, students may get interest in studying the subject matter. It eliminates the stage fear of the students. It provides an opportunity for improving vocabulary and expression.

3. Commerce Magazine: The commerce association can also publish a school or its department magazine annually. The commerce teacher can ask the students and teachers to contribute articles to the magazine. This department, if possible, can publish monthly or weekly written magazines.

4. Social service:

The commerce teacher can also organize social service scheme, this can be in the form of laying village road, cleaning the temple, teaching the adult illiterates, conducting evening special classes to the school children with the help of commerce students.

5. Vacation work:

The commerce teacher can make an arrangement with the hostel warden and business agencies to engage the commerce students in their accounts departments during vacations. This will train the students with the variety of experiences during the limited period. Students with this experience can discuss with the other students to transmit their experience.

The commerce association may also make the necessary arrangements for guest lectures, panel discussions, workshops etc. He can invite nearby college or university professors, bank managers, great businessmen, auditors and accountants etc., to give guest lectures. He can also utilize the help of the above mentioned people to conduct a Workshop, panel discussions etc. In addition to the above mentioned activities the commerce teacher can organise other co- curricular activities according to the needs, interest, and co-operation available from the students and others.

6. Mock "Job Application Interview"

Mock interviews on job applications may be organised in the schools. These may be the practical applications of theoretical details furnished by the commerce teacher as how to apply for some posts and how to face interviews. This activity may be organised for students in the form of drama. Dramatic performances will have far-reaching effects on the mind of students. They will remove the shyness and fears of interview mania and will enables students to farewell in the interview which they may face later on.

The following are the uses of using community resources.

1.         It gives through knowledge about the subject matter.

2.         It develops a sense of individual and collective responsibility among the students.

3.         It develops the ability to work with others

4.         It utilizes the leisure time in s better way.

5.         It helps the students to become a good citizen

6.         It creates and maintains good teacher student relationship

7.         It makes school life more attractive and encouraging.

8.         It develops good relationship between school and home,

9.         It gives experience in leadership and organisation.

10.       It strengthen the knowledge acquired in the classroom

11.       It brings out the inner potentialities of the students.

12.       It develops the self-confidence among the students.

13.       It develops the feeling of belonging adjustment adoptability in ail situations.

As a whole it develops the all-round personality of the students and a spirit of service; the students learn how to organise, plan conduct the various community related activities.

4.2.4. The Role of Teachers

Community linkages can help orient new teachers. Community situations can also be used in the professional development of teachers. Teachers may also play a role in assisting community organisations or in helping the local community manage local issues.

He should allow the parents to talk voluntarily. He should make a thorough analysis of each child’s strength, weakness, behavior. Utilizing Community Resources, the teacher should show considerable patience and tact in dealing with parents. Problems if any and discuss these intimately and pleasantly with their parents. Conducting community skill activities in the school- commerce club, field trips, exhibitions, cultural programmes etc.

4.3. E-Learning

Electronic learning, or e-learning, is education based on modern methods of communication including the computer and its networks, various audio-visual materials, search engines, electronic libraries, and websites, whether accomplished in the classroom or at a distance. Generally speaking, this type of education is delivered through the medium of the World Wide Web where the educational institution makes its programs and materials available on a special website in such a manner that students are able to make use of them and interact with them with ease through closed or shared, networks, or the Internet, and through use of e-mail and online discussion groups.

Definition

E-learning is “a learning method and a technique for the presentation of academic curricula via the internet or any other electronic media inclusive of multimedia, compact discs, satellites, or other new education technologies”. The two parties participating in the educational process interact through these media to achieve specific educational objectives.

Need and Importance

E-learning assists in the transformation of the educational process from the stage of learning by rote to one characterized by creativity, interaction and the development of skills.

The student, in e-learning, is able to access educational materials at any time and from any place, thereby transforming the concepts of the educational process and learning to go beyond the limits imposed by traditional classrooms into a rich environment in which there are numerous sources of learning.

Sources of programs of e-learning include experts in the field, ministries, corporations and other organizations concerned with the dissemination of technical applications in education.

Programs are offered by way of closed or shared networks, as well as over the Internet, and e-mail and discussion groups are among the techniques and mechanisms employed in e-learning.

 

Advantages of e-learning in education

The online learning style is best suited for all. This is a revolution in learning genre. The information, now, can be accessed, talked, absorbed and shared anywhere. E-Learning has made education easy for everyone including office-goers, housewives etc. without compromising much.

·         E-Learning is effective and powerful. It makes information easy to grasp and absorb. It imparts enhanced ability to learn and implement among the learners. The Audio-Visuals help in remembering knowledge for a longer time.

·         E-Learning let you be in sync with modern learners. This keeps you updated with the current trends.

·         Traditional classrooms, have mischievous elements to disturb the class. Whereas, eLearning provides expeditious delivery of lessons. There is no procrastinator in eLearning. It is a quick way of learning!

·         Lectures can be taken at any time and any number of times. In traditional classes, revisions are not that easy. Unlike traditional learning, if you have missed any lesson, you can always have it online.

·         E-Learning allows teachers a higher degree of coverage to deliver the content regularly. This ensures consistency in learning.

·         E-Learning is cost-effective as this method quick and easy. Long training period, infrastructure, stationary, travel expense etc is reduced.

·         It is a benefactor to those who feel nervous and disconnected in groups. It helps you learn without having to give up the comforts of the environment you are at ease with.

 

Different types of e- Learning

There are fundamentally two types of e-Learning:

1.      Synchronous training

Synchronous, means “at the same time,” involves interaction of participants with an instructor via the Web in real time. For example – VCRs or Virtual class rooms that are nothing else but real classrooms online. Participants interact with each other and instructors through instant messaging, chat, audio and video conferencing etc. and what’s more all the sessions can be recorded and played back. Its benefits are:

·         Ability to log or track learning activities.

·         Continuous monitoring and correction is possible

·         Possibilities of global connectivity and collaboration opportunities among learners.

·         Ability to personalise the training for each learner.

2. Asynchronous training

Asynchronous, which means “not at the same time,” allows the participants to complete the WBT (Web-based training) at their own pace, without live interaction with the instructor. Basically, it is information that is accessible on a self-help basis, 24/7. The advantage is that this kind of e-Learning offers the learners the information they need whenever they need it. It also has interaction amongst participants through message boards, bulletin boards and discussion forums. These include computer based training,(CBTs) modules on CD-ROM’s, Web based training accessed through intranet (WBTs) or through well written articles and other write ups. Its advantages are:-

•Available ‘just in time’ for instant learning and reference.

•Flexibility of access from anywhere at any time.

•Ability to simultaneously reach an unlimited number of employees.

•Uniformity of content and onetime cost of production.

A new form of learning known as blended learning is emerging. As the name suggests it is an amalgamation of synchronous and asynchronous learning methods. Using both online training through virtual classrooms and also giving CD’s and study material for self-study is now being increasingly preferred over any single type of training

E-Resources

E-resources is short term for Electronic Resources or electronic information resources. These are collections of information in electronic or digital format that are accessed on an electronic device, such as a mobile phone, computer, etc.

E-learning materials

An electronic book (variously: e-book, eBook, e-Book, e-book, digital book or e-edition) is a book-length publication in digital form, consisting of text, images, or both, readable on computers or other electronic devices.

Digital text book

A digital textbook is a digital book or e-book intended to serve as the text for a class. Digital textbooks may also be known as e-textbooks or e-texts. Digital textbooks are a major component of technology-based education reform. They may serve as the texts for a traditional face-to-face class, an online course or degree, or a massive open online course (MOOC)

 

Electronic journals

Electronic journals also known as e-journals, e-journals, and electronic serials, are scholarly journals or intellectual magazines that can be accessed via electronic transmission. In practice, this means that they are usually published on the Web. They are a specialized form of electronic document: they have the purpose of providing material for academic research and study, and they are formatted approximately like journal articles in traditional printed journals. Many electronic journals are listed in directories such as the Directory of Open Access Journals, and the articles indexed in bibliographic databases and search engines for the academic discipline concerned.

Some electronic journals are online-only journals; some are online versions of printed journals, sometimes with extra video and interactive media material.

Most commercial journals are subscription-based, and/or allow pay-per-view access. Many universities subscribe in bulk to packages of electronic journals, so as to provide access to them to their students and faculty. It is generally also possible for individuals to purchase an annual subscription to a journal from the original publisher.

An increasing number of e-journals are available as open access journals, requiring no subscription and offering free full-text articles and reviews to all. Individual articles may be found online for free in an ad-hoc manner: in working paper archives; on personal homepages; and in the collections held in institutional and subject repositories. Some commercial journals find ways to offer free materials. They may offer their initial issue or issues free, and then charge thereafter. Some give away their book reviews section for free. Others offer the first few pages of each article for free.

Most electronic journals are published in HTML and/or PDF formats, but some are available in only one of the two formats. A small minority publish in DOC, and a few are starting to add MP3 audio. Some early electronic journals were first published in ASCII text, and some informally published ones continue in that for

Digital library

A Digital Library (also referred to as digital library or digital repository) is a special library with a focused collection of digital objects that can include text, visual material, audio material, video material, stored as electronic media formats (as opposed to print, microform, or other media), along with means for organizing, storing, and retrieving the files and media contained in the library collection.

M-learning

M-learning or mobile learning is defined as "learning across multiple contexts, through social and content interactions, using personal electronic devices. As a form of distance education, m-learners use mobile device educational technology at their time convenience.

M-learning technologies include handheld computers, MP3 players, notebooks, mobile phones and tablets. M-learning focuses on the mobility of the learner, interacting with portable technologies. Using mobile tools for creating learning aids and materials becomes an important part of informal learning.

The value of mobile learning / Advantages -Tutors who have used m-learning programs and techniques have made the following value statements in favour of m-learning

•It is important to bring new technology into the classroom.

•Devices used are more lightweight than books and PCs.

•Mobile learning can be used to diversify the types of learning activities (or a blended learning approach).

•Mobile learning supports the learning process rather than being integral to it.

•Mobile learning can be a useful add-on tool for students with special needs. However, for SMS and MMS this might be dependent on the students’ specific disabilities or difficulties involved.

•M-learning is convenient in that it is accessible from virtually anywhere.

• Sharing is almost instantaneous among everyone using the same content, which leads to the reception of instant feedback and tips.

• The highly active process increases exam scores, and cut the dropout rate

•M-learning brings strong portability

•It replaces books and notes with small devices, filled with tailored learning contents

•Relatively inexpensive opportunities, as the cost of mobile devices are significantly less than PCs and laptops

•Multimedia content delivery and creation options

•Continuous and situated learning support

•Decrease in training costs

•Potentially a more rewarding learning experience

•New opportunities for traditional educational institutions

•Readily available a/synchronous learning experience

 YouTube

It is a free video sharing website that makes it easy to watch online videos. You can even create and upload your own videos to share with others. Originally created in 2005, YouTube is now one of the most popular sites on the Web, with visitors watching around 6 billion hours of video every month.Top of Form

Module 5

Instructional Support

 

5.1. Text Book- Criteria for selection- Characteristics

1. What is a text book?

A text book is the teacher in print. When an ordinary book contains a bare statement of knowledge the text book is armed with various teaching-learning techniques and motives. It is normally a written book which contains selective and systematic knowledge presented in a sequential form, the study of which can provide learning experiences required for the mastery of the curriculum.

2. Importance of text books

Text book is one of the important aids in the teaching-learning process and play, a pivotal role in educating school pupils. Thinkers like Froebel, John Dewey ang Mahatma Gandhi were against the use of bookish knowledge. Consequent to this, attempts were made by some for dispensing with the use of text books as an instrument and tool for imparting knowledge. But researches conducted in U.S.A have revealed that the use of text book could not be dropped out of the system of education. Educationalists in India and abroad are unanimous in admitting that text books are an integral part of any educational system.

3. Functions of text books in commerce education

Good text books are indispensable for the study and teaching of Commerce for various reasons. The important among them are:

* Text books provide useful guidelines which could help the teacher in day to day teaching. Besides serving the purpose of a reference book, it provides suggestions for providing curricular and co-curricular learning experiences.

* For the pupils, a text book is the most accessible guide, dependable reference book and all-time companion.

* A text book makes self-learning possible. This is so because, a good text book provides material in a systematic and comprehensive form. It sets standards of minimum essentials to be achieved by pupils of all categories.

* A good text book helps to form correct understanding of basic concepts and principles of Commerce. It provides a common basis on which the process of reading, analysing, outlining, and summarizing could be mastered.

* A good text book is useful in overcoming limitations of classroom teaching.

 

 

4. Characteristics of a good text book

* The first and foremost requirement of a good text book in Commerce is that it should be written by an author who has adequate experience of teaching the subject, because only such a person can understand the actual learning situation and difficulties of pupils.

* The presentation of the materials in a good text book in Commerce should be suitable to the age, ability and interests of the pupils. The language used also should be suitable to the age level of the pupils

* The subject matter should be developed, as far as possible maintaining the psychological sequence. There should be consistency of the subject matter and the text book should help in the realisation objectives of commerce education.

* The text book should be able to help both teachers and pupils. Each chapter should contain assignments, exercises and suggestions for further activities.

* The contents of the text book must be up-to-date. It should suggest references for further study and reference for collateral reading. This helps in motivation and comprehensive learning.

* The book should be well illustrated. The abstract concepts presented in the text book should be illustrated through visual aids such as diagrams, charts, graphs, etc. Care should be taken to ensure that illustrations, are well chosen and are connected with the main theme. Over use of illustrations or use of irrelevant illustrations may spoil the quality of the text book.

* The print and the paper used and the binding of the text book should be attractive.

Criteria for Selection of the test book

1. It should help in achieving the purpose of learning commerce

2. It should be child-centered

3. It should contain fluent narration

4. It should have a clear and self-explanatory arrangement

5. It should open up various avenues of thought and study

6. The language of the test book should be suitable for the reading age of the pupil

7. It should be well-illustrated

8. It should be simple, interesting and attractive enough to take the form of a self-study material

9. It should be free from indoctrination

 10. It should provide proper and adequate exercises and suggestions for activities at the end of each chapter. 11. It must be up to date

12. It should help in developing international understanding

13. It should contain references for further study and references for collateral reading

14. It should also cater to the needs of backward pupils

15. It should promote group effort

 16. It should contain a subject index at the end.

5.2. Teacher’s Hand book/Sourcebook

A handbook is a type of reference work, or other collection of instructions, that is intended to provide ready reference. It is a treatise on a special subject. Nowadays it is often a simple but all-embracing treatment, containing concise information and being small enough to be held in the hand. It is referred to as a pocket reference that is intended to be carried at all times. It may also be referred to as a manual. Handbooks may deal with any topic, and are generally collections of information in a particular field or about a particular technique. They are designed to be easily consulted and provide quick answers in a certain area. For example, the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers is a reference for how to cite works in MLA style, among other things.

5.3. Improvised aids 

Improvisation is an art of identifying, developing and using suitable materials in the absence of the real one for effective teaching and learning of various concepts. Improvisation could mean making of instructional material or teaching aid by teachers where the original materials are not available or where there are available but not functional. Improvisation is the local provision of an object or material to meet a particular need. Improvisation is an art of sourcing for and providing substitute materials for the original ones using what is locally available in the absence of standard materials usually aimed at meeting the specific instructional objectives.

5.4. Smart board and their uses

A Smart board is an electronic, interactive whiteboard used in tandem with a computer and projector. Smart boards are a great tool to keep your audience alert and interested in your presentation! They’re quickly replacing whiteboards in classrooms and corporate offices. You can draw, browse the Internet, and display information on them. Because they're connected to your computer, they have the capability of saving your work, notes, and presentations and sharing them with others. You can even access information online with the touch of a finger.

Uses

·                     Boost student engagement. ...

·                     Accommodate different learning styles. ...

·                     Save, share and send lessons. ...

·                     Bring the classroom to everyone. ...

·                     Help students succeed.

·                     Smart boards enhance student’s learning experience

·                     access to online resources

·                     They are environmentally friendly

·                     Smart boards allow for technology integration

 

5.5. Virtual Classroom

Virtual Classrooms are online platforms that allow interaction between teachers and students. With the use of different tools and features, virtual classrooms imitate the learning environment and feel of physical classrooms.

It is basically a software that allows a person (teacher) to transmit audio-visual information (courses) live through the means of the internet. Generally, it also allows the interaction of students amongst themselves and the teacher via text messages sent in a dedicated chat window. In this way, virtual classroom software replicates the feel of real classrooms.

Also known as the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE), the virtual classroom is at its root a web conferencing software modified to better adhere to the teaching-learning process. It is a software that can be installed on almost any laptop or PC and requires basic knowledge of computers and the internet.

Benefits of virtual classroom

1. Access to coursework from anywhere at any time

2. Combination of structure and freedom

3. Effective time management

4. Expanded world view

 5. Asynchronous discussions with classmates

6. Immediate feedback on tests

7. Sharpened digital skills

The most common tools you can find in a virtual classroom are:

•           Videoconferencing

•           Online whiteboard for real-time collaboration

•           Instant messaging tool

•           Participation controls

•           Breakout rooms

Although teaching and learning in a virtual classroom provide an experience similar to the physical one, it requires new pedagogical approaches and a redesign of the instructional model that includes the following characteristics:

1.         Virtual Classroom’s high Interactivity

2.         Collaborative Learning

3.         Student-Centered Instruction

4.         Variety of Content Presentation and Learning Activities

5.         Psychologically Safe Environment

6.         Positive and Constructive Feedback