EDU101: CONTEMPORARY INDIA & EDUCATION (B.Ed)
MODULE
1 – EDUCATION
1.1
Etymological meaning of Education, Definitions, Human Resource Development
(Latin): Educare -to bring up, to train, to teach; Educere
- to draw out, to lead forth (Sanskrit): 'Vidya' - derived from the verb 'Vid'
which means 'to know, to find out, to learn'.
Definitions
of Education
M. K Gandhi- "By education I mean an all-round
drawing out of the best in child and man-body, mind and spirit".
Aristotle: "Education is the creation of a sound
mind in a sound body.
Narrow meaning: deliberate effort to develop certain
amount of knowledge, skills, attitudes and habits in an individual
through formal institutions like schools and colleges.
Broader Meaning: a lifelong process whereby an
individual acquires experiences through different channels (i.e.,
formal, Non-formal, informal or incidental).
Education as Product and Process
Education is a product in the sense that it is
the sum total of what is received through learning — the knowledge, skills,
values that are the outcomes of learning.
Education is also referred as a process as it
develops the intellect, critical thinking abilities, social and cultural
understanding, and understanding of one's own self.
Education as a bi-polar process: John Adams-
interaction between educator and the educand. Tri-polar process: John
Dewey- interaction between educator, educand and the social environment (curriculum)
- It is an active and a dynamic process which takes place continuously during
one's life.
Human Resource Development
Human resource development is defined as the acquisition of
appropriate mental outlook, knowledge, skills, capacity and competency by a
human being so that s/he becomes efficient and productive members of the
society.
Goals
of Human Resource development
To enhance the employability of a person- to
develop appropriate mental outlook, knowledge, skills, capacity and competency
in an individual- to enhance the adaptability of the individual to the emerging
situations.
Need and importance of Human Resource development
Through human resource development a human becomes human capital.
Capital is anything that leads to increase in production and income. Capital
may be material, social, intellectual, cultural, and human. For example, when a
human being learns the techniques of producing iron from iron ore, s/he becomes
a human resource. Similarly, scientists, engineers, agronomists, doctors,
judges, administrators, teachers and journalists etc., who are engaged in
producing goods and services in the society, in one way or other, are all human
resources.
1.2
Aims and Functions of Education, Education as investment
Individual aims-Knowledge,
Vocation (Bread and Butter aim), Harmonious Development (All-round Development),
and leisure aim (proper utilization of free time).
Social aims- Inculcation of Social Feelings, Creation
of Good Citizenship, Preservation, transmission and transformation of
Culture.
National
aims- National integration, patriotism, national felling.
Global
aims- The four pillars of education: Learning to Know, Learning to Do,
Learning to Live Together, Learning to Be. ("Learning: The treasure within”: Jacques Delors
UNESCO. 1996).
Education
as investment
Investment is defined as the process of adding
to stocks of productive assets, which may include the acquiring of fixed assets
such as buildings, plants, equipment and spending money to improve the quality
of human being. Investment is the use of resources intended to increase future
production, output or income. Investment to improve the quality of human being
is known investment in human capital. Education as a process of imparting
knowledge or skill, systematic instruction, broadening of mental horizons, all
round development of personality is seen as an investment on human capital.
The
investment in human capital is essential on account of the following reasons:
Makes a better workforce, creates new products
& services that enhance quality of life , creates safer neighbourhoods ,
social and economic development, overcomes the deficiencies of natural
resources, increases social mobility, higher status, increased appreciation for
arts and culture, increased participation in democratic process, development of
democratic society—well-informed and responsible citizens, Preservation of
nation's culture and people's sense of identity.
1.3
Educational heritage of Vedic Period
Veda comes from the Sanskrit root 'Vid' means to know – Four
important Vedas: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
The Upanayana ceremony marked the initiation of the child into
education under the care of Guru. It is believed that child is only an animal
before Upanayana. The spiritual meaning of Upanayana is that, "The
teacher, holding the pupil within him as in a womb, impregnates him with his
spirit, and delivers him in a new birth". The pupil is then known as a dwija
(twice born), born afresh in a new, qualitatively different existence.
The
Gurukula system
After the Upanayana ceremony the child becomes
a member of Guru's family in every respect. The students performed household
duties for the teacher. Guru becomes his spiritual father, and is held
responsible for any drawback in his shishya. He used to advise them what to do,
what to avoid, what to eat, when to sleep and so on. The guru was a model for
him. The character of shishya is formed on this model.
Aims of Education- Attainment of Moksha and
Mukti (self-realization)- all-round development of personality-
character formation- attainment of truth (satyam), doing good (sivam) and
appreciating the beauty (Sundaram).
Curriculum
The curricula differed according to castes.
Vedic literature, the Vedas, Vedangas, the Upanishads, constituted the
curriculum of the Brahmins. War craft, archery, horsemanship, sword fight, etc.
constituted the curriculum of the Kshatriyas. Agriculture and trade constituted
the curriculum of the Vysias. Shudras were denied any kind of formal education.
Their main work was to serve the upper class through menial works.
Methods
of Teaching
Shravana (listening), Manana (meditation) and
Nidhidhyasana (practice and experience) were the classical methods of teaching
and learning adopted in the Vedic system. The Guru recited the Vedic hymns, and
the pupils listened and repeated. This was generally followed by discussion and
contemplation.
Teacher-Pupil Relationship
Intimate relationship between the teacher and the taught, and it was
like the relation between a father and a son. The student life under the Guru
came to a close with the Samavarthana ceremony (convocation). Students
pay gurudakshina and Guru blesses the students with the following advice,
"Speak truth and practice virtue. Neglect not thy studies or thy duty to
God and parents. Dedicate thyself to good deeds and virtue".
Evaluation
of Vedic Education
The important merits of the Vedic system of
education were individualization of instruction, intimate relationship between
the teacher and the pupil, character formation, cultivation of inner discipline
and development of personality. The Vedic system of education is criticized on
the grounds of its extreme stress on spiritual matters, teacher centered
approach and the caste system.
1.4
Educational Heritage of Buddhist period Lord Buddha 563 to 483 B.C
Buddhism is based on Buddha's preaching which
has the four noble truths as its foundation- The world is full of miseries
-Desires are the causes of all miseries -Worldly desires can be removed- These
desires can be removed by following the eight-fold path. By following the eight
fold path Nirvana can be attained.
The eight-fold path consists of Right Belief,
Right Aspiration, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood, Right Effort,
Right Contemplation (memory) and Right Meditation.
Aims
of Education
The ultimate aim of education during the
Buddhist period was the attainment of Nirvana or salvation. It is a life
of great sacrifice, firm dedication, controlling of passions and desires for
doing service to humanity. Aims like development of human qualities, character
formation, all-round development of the personality, development of democratic
and civic sense, proficiency in crafts, art, business, astronomy etc. were also
given importance.
The centers of education during
Buddhist period were monasteries or Viharas. Viharas provided both religious
and secular type of education. Students from all walks of life irrespective of
their caste and religion were admitted in Viharas. The teachers (Upadhyayas)
and students (Saddhiviharika) lived together in Viharas.
Important
Ceremonies
Education of the child began with an
initiation ceremony called pabbaja, which means 'to go out' or 'coming
out from the state of a house holder'. The child goes out of the family at the
age of 8 join in Viharas with yellow dress and shaved head and takes the
following oaths:
Buddham Saranam Gachami (I take refuge with Buddha), Dharmam Saranam
Gachami (I take refuge with religion), Sangam Saranam Gachami (I take refuge
with Sangam)
After the ceremony of Pabbaja the child is
came to be known as Sammanera or Shramana. A Shramana was strictly forbidden to
commit violence, speak untruth, take intoxicants, indulge in music or dance,
using garlands, scents and ornaments, eating out of time etc. The sammanera
lives with his teacher (Upadhyaya) for 12 years. The relationship between
sammer and upadhayaya was similar to that existed between shishya and guru of
the Vedic period. After 12 years of life in Sangam, at the age of 20 he
undergoes another ceremony known as Upasampada which was the final ordination
of Buddhist system of education. After this ceremony the students was given a
regular membership in Sangam and was made a perfect Bhikshu or Bhikshuni.
Content
of Education
Buddhist education in the beginning, was only
for the monks, afterwards laymen were also given education. Secular subjects
were stressed in the curriculum for laymen and religious subjects were stressed
for the monks. The curriculum for laymen consisted of study of sacred
literature, logic, metaphysics, astrology, politics, administration, etc. Pali-
a vernacular language was the medium of instruction.
Education during Buddhist period was
categorized into two -Primary education and higher education. Primary education
consists of 3 years and was mainly concerned with the learning of 3 R's. The
curriculum for higher education consisted of religion, philosophy medicine,
military science, fine arts, grammar, poetry etc. Practical subjects like
spinning, weaving, printing, ganana (accountancy), tailoring, sketching and
Ayurveda were also taught.
Nalanda
and Taxila were the two most important centers of higher
learning during the Buddhist period. There were no restrictions on the basis of
caste, sex, and nationality for admission.
Methods
of Teaching
Buddhist method of teaching was mainly oral.
The question-answer method and discussion method were also emphasized.
Meditations and self-study were duly emphasized. Debates and seminars were the
common feature of Viharas. Buddha's whole career was a continuous round of
debates and discussions with the exponents of other schools of thought.
Buddhists were the pioneers in vocationalisation of education.
Learning by doing was the principle in vocational training. The students
learned arts and crafts by doing apprenticeship under some experts. Educational
tours were also arranged at the end of the course to perfect their experience.
Teacher-Pupil
Relationship
The relationship between Shramana and
Upadhyaya was like son and father. The teacher had some duties and
responsibilities towards his students and vice- versa. The Sanga maintained a
strict code of ethics for teachers. The teachers' moral character and conduct
were never to be lowered.
Evaluation
of Buddhist Education
Buddhist education was open to all
irrespective of caste, creed, and sex. Women also were allowed to undergo
Buddhist education. Separate monasteries were established to give encouragement
to women education. The Buddhist system of education tried to root out the
class or caste distinctions and established a system of education for the mass.
They are the pioneers of mass education in vernacular language.
1.5
Educational institutions of the Medieval (12th to 17th Century)
The history of medieval India is more or less
the history of the Muslim conquests. The centuries between the invasion of
Mohammed Ghori in 1192 and the death of Aurangazeb in 1707 were influenced by
this Islamic education.
Aims
of Education
The important aim of education during Islamic period was spiritual.
The study of Holy Quran was given top priority for Muslims. Propagation of
Islamic faith and culture was another aim.
Educational
Institutions
Maktabs and Madrasas were the two important
educational institutions that existed in Islamic period. They constituted
primary education. Maktabs were the elementary schools attached to mosques, for
imparting primary education, i.e., the teaching of 3 R's. The initiation to
maktabs was based on a religious ceremony called 'Bismillah'. Those who
completed their education in maktabs would continue higher education at the
Madrassahs. The Madrassahs were usually residential institutions where the
students could listen to learned scholars.
Content
of Education: learning
of 3R's, Quran, Persian, Grammar etc.
Teacher
- pupil relationship:
The teacher was known an Ustad, Sheik, Imam or Maulavi. The teacher
was always held in high esteem in the society. Strict discipline was enforced.
Corporal punishment was common.
Methods
of Teaching: was
mainly oral. Rote Learning was always encouraged.
Evaluation
of medieval Education
Women's education was not encouraged, especially the women of lower
and middle strata of the society. But the princess and girls of aristocratic
families received education at home. Many of the Islamic rulers and teachers
contemned other faiths and culture.
1.6 Educational implications of Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita
The word Upanishad literally means upa- ni- sad, 'sitting down
near'. It means sitting down near the teacher to receive instruction. The
Upanishads contain the essence of the Vedas. They are the concluding portions
of the Vedas and are the source of the Vedanta philosophy. They are the
products of the highest wisdom, supreme divine knowledge. Hence they stir the
hearts of people and inspire them.
The Upanishads are generally accounted to be
108 in number, of which about twelve are the chief. The twelve major
Upanishads are: Aitareya, Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Ishavasasya, Katha, Kauhsitaki,
Kena, Mandukya, Mundaka, Prasna, Svetasvatara, and Taittiriya.
The message of Upanishads
This world is in-dwelt by Para Brahman or the
Absolute. Renounce all desires -Renounce egoism, selfishness and identification
with the body for the attainment of moksha or liberation- Do one's daily duties
without expectation of the fruits of one's actions (nishkamakarma) - avidya
(ignorance) kama (desire) and karma (action) are annihilated by the knowledge
of Brahman- When karma (work and action) is done without expectations of the
fruits, the mind is purified and the spiritual aspirant experiences a strong
desire for final emancipation. Moksha (liberation) can only come from jnana (spiritual
wisdom) - Karma purifies the mind and helps the aspirant to attain knowledge
Educational
implications of Upanishads
A. Upanishads help to maintain world peace
Peace or 'Shanti' is a broad term which
includes calmness, well-being, prosperity, equity, security, good fortune,
justice, good health, safety, and friendliness. The teachings of Upanisads are
meant to create peace in the world.
'Shanti Mantras' are found in Upanishads,
where they are invoked in the beginning of some topics of Upanishads. They are
supposed to calm the mind of the reciter and environment around him/her. Shanti
Mantras always end with three utterances of word "Shanti" which means
"Peace". The Reason for uttering three times is for calming and
braining about peace in Physical, Divine and Internal realms.
Upanishads contain some of the earliest messages
for peace. The prayer of sages of the Upanisadic period was that Lokah
Samastah Sukhino Bhavantu, May all the beings in all the worlds become
happy. They also popularized the principle of 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam',
the entire world is truly just one family. They emphasize harmony with nature
and recognize that all natural elements hold divinity.
B. Upanishads promotes
sustainable development
Sustainable development is development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. The concept of Sustainable Development has
three aspects to it: environmental, social, and economic. Sustainable
development require that we see the world as a system — a system that connects
space; and a system that connects time.
The Isa Upanishad speaks of how we should consume only according to
our needs. The first verse of the
Upanishad
is: Om
IshavasyamIdamSarvam, Yat Kim Cha Jagatyam Jagat, Tena TyaktenaBhunjitha,
MaaGradhaKasyasvidDhanam, All this, whatsoever moves in this
universe enveloped by God.
Therefore find your enjoyment in renunciation, do not covet what belongs to
others. The principles enshrined in Upanisads teach us tolerance and concern
for others. It helps us to withstand sectarianism, bigotry, fanaticism and
violence.
Bhagavad Githa
The Bhagavad Gita is a dialogue between Lord
Krishna and Arjuna, narrated in the Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata. It
comprises eighteen discourses of a total of 701 Sanskrit verses. The eighteen
discourses are woven in a harmonious manner.
Arjun got mentally depressed when he saw his
relatives with whom he has to fight. To motivate him the Bhagavad Gita is
preached in the battle field Kurushetra by Lord Krishna to Arjun as a
counseling to do his duty while multitude of men stood by waiting Krishna gave
education to perform his duty as a prince, as a warrior, as a righteous man to
fight against evil and restore peace and order. Lord Krishna's remarks of immortality
of the soul open his eyes and give him strength and courage. Arjuna then learns
the technique of Karma Yoga and renunciation of the fruits of actions. He
learns the methods of controlling the senses and the mind and practising
concentration and meditation. Arjuna experiences the magnificent Cosmic Vision
and understands the glorious nature of a liberated being. He is then given
knowledge of the Field and the Knower of the Field, the three Gunas and the
Purushottama. His knowledge is completed by an explanation of the divine
attributes, the three kinds of faith and the essence of the Yoga of
renunciation.
Educational
implication of Bhagavad Githa
A.
Bhagavad Githa promotes attitude of
non-attachment or detachment
The Gita emphasises that one should cultivate
an attitude of non-attachment or detachment, Nishkama Karma. It urges
repeatedly that an individual should live in the world like a lotus in the
water. Though the lotus grows in the muddy water it is not tainted.
B.
"Bhagavad Githa encourages synthesis
of Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Jnana Yoga.
The Gita tries to build up a philosophy of Karma based on Janana and
supported by Bhakti in a beautiful manner. It represents a unique synthesis of
Action, Devotion and Knowledge. An individual attains ultimate liberation
through the balance of mind (sthita- prajana) through the synthesis of Karma
Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Jnana Yoga.
1.7
Western System of Education in India
The British East India Company in India was
established in AD 1600. In 1757 the company undertook the responsibility of
educating the Indians. The Charter Act of 1813 stated, "...a sum of not
less than one lakh of rupees in each year shall be set apart and applied to the
improvement of literature and the encouragement of the learned natives of India
and for the introduction and promotion of knowledge of the sciences among the
inhabitants of the British territories in India".
Oriental
- Occidental Controversy
The Charter Act of 1813 led to a period of
controversies between the Orientals and the Occidentals (the Anglicists). The
points of controversy were with regard to the aims and objectives of education
(Mass vs Class), medium (Vernacular vs English) and the content (Indigenous vs
European Knowledge). The Orientals stood for mass education, vernacular medium
and indigenous knowledge while the Occidentals argued for class education
through English medium which is for the spreading of European knowledge.
Macaulay's
Minutes (1835)
Lord Macaulay gave a new interpretation to the
Charter Act of 1813 and proved that the amount set apart for education in India
should be used for English education. He rejected the claims of the Orientals
and recommended English as the medium of instruction. He also recommended that,
all oriental institutions should be converted into institutions for English
education. Grants given to such institutions should be utilized for the spread
of European literature and science. Macaulay wanted to create, "A class of
people Indian in blood and colour but English in taste, opinion, morals and
intellect". He believed that, a single shelf of a good European library
was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.
Filtration
Theory
Macaulay did not aim at educating the common
mass directly. He aimed at creating educated elite who could impart the spirit
of English education to the common people. On July 31, 1837 he said, "At
present we don't aim at educating directly the common people. We aim at
creating a class of persons, who among their countrymen distribute some of the
knowledge we gave". Accepting this idea government declared a policy.
"The government should educate the higher class of people so that the
filtered culture reaches to the public". This is known as 'downward
filtration' theory.
1.8
Wood’s Despatch (1854)
Sir Charles Wood, in his report on education,
made a sincere attempt to improve the condition of education in India. His
report is called as the Magna Carta of Indian Education. The main
recommendations:
1.
The aims of English Education in India were:
to confer upon the Indians western knowledge and its material blessings - to
promote intellectual and moral character- to supply the company reliable and
capable public servants.
2.
It emphasized that both English and Indian
languages would be the media for the diffusion of European Knowledge;
3)
Recommended the creation of a Department of
education in every province with a Director of Public Instruction along with
inspectors of schools for effective control, supervision and administration;
4)
Recommended the establishment of three
universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras on the model of London university;
5)
Envisaged graded system of institutions
starting with Primary schools, Middle Schools, High schools, Colleges and
Universities;
6)
Suggested a grant-in-aid system to encourage
private Indian enterprise to undertake educational activities especially for
the masses;
7)
Recommended Indian languages as medium;
8)
Discarded downward filtration theory.
1.9 Types of Education-Formal,
informal, and non-formal Formal education
Education imparted consciously through different institutions is
termed as formal education. It is structured in terms of learning objectives,
learning time and leads to certification.
Agencies for formal education – Schools, Colleges, and
universities
Characteristics of Formal education
- Fixed points of entry and exit for the students - fixed curriculum-
rigid with regard to admission, curriculum, and place of instruction, time
table and duration of instruction.
Non- formal education: Non-formal education refers to the organized,
flexible and sustained educational activities taking place both within and
outside educational institutions which cater to persons of all ages. It may
cover educational programmes like adult literacy, basic education for out of
the school children and programmes to develop life skills, work skills, and
vocational training.
Characteristics
of Non-Formal Education-
Learner Centered- Cafeteria Curriculum
(options, variety and flexibility) - Informal Human Relationships-Reliance on
Local Resources- Immediate Usefulness.
Agencies of Non-Formal Education - Kerala Association for
Non-Formal Education and Development (KANFED), GrandhasalaSangham,
SasthraSahitya Parishad, Open Universities-
Functions
and importance of Non-Formal Education
Universalisation of primary education,
eradication of illiteracy, compensation for the omissions of formal education,
equipping the individual to meet the challenges of the complex society.
Informal education
Education earned by an individual from the
sources, other than the ones that are purposely meant for imparting education,
is called informal education. It takes place through observation, experience or
imitation at home or in the surroundings, from parents, peers, family members
and the community.
Characteristics
of Informal education:
Incidental, spontaneous and unintentional learning from surroundings.
Role
of Family,Peer Group and Community in Informal education
a)
Family: adjustment, cultivation of good
habits, promotion of aesthetic sense, moral and religious education,
transmission of culture and socialization.
b)
Peer Group: persons of the same age group -
learn to assume new social roles, develop rational consciences, new scale of
values and self-expression.
c)
Community: group of people living together in
a locality, sharing common traditions and customs - educational facilities,
co-ordinates the works of the different educational agencies, establishes
clubs, libraries, organizes fairs, festivals and exhibitions, and provides
informal education.
1.10
Comparison of formal, informal and non-formal education
Compare in terms of characteristics, agency, aims, curriculum,
duration and time, place and purpose.
1.11 Education as a discipline
A discipline is an organized body of knowledge
of a particular field. A discipline is a product of human experience having
distinct origin, subject matter, theoretical foundation and research
methodology. Each discipline is composed of an association of researchers who
follow common procedures in pursuing an area of inquiry.
The focus of education as a discipline-The
main inquiry of education as a discipline is "how to educate an individual".
So the main focus of Education as a discipline is regarding the methods of
teaching and learning in schools or school-like environments. In other words
the main concern of education as a discipline is the art and science of
Pedagogy.
Nature
of education as a discipline-Education is not a single
discipline but interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary in nature.
Interdisciplinary approach transcends the boundaries of single disciplines and
integrates different disciplines to the meaningful solution of a problem.
Interdisciplinary approach implies that concepts and theories should be
developed from multiple perspectives and should provide opportunities for
deepening one's understanding and vision.
Education as a discipline is correlated with (depending on) Psychology,
Philosophy, Linguistics, Science and Social sciences in
the areas of aims and objectives of education, in the development of
curriculum, in the methods of teaching and learning, in understanding
the diverse needs of the learners, in tackling the various issues, problems of
educational institutions and in developing research methods etc.
Correlation
of education with Psychology - Psychology is an academic and
applied discipline involving the study of behaviour and mental
processes. Education as a discipline incorporates many insights of psychology
in to its fold and develops Educational psychology which includes learning
theories, principle of individual differences, and various strategies of behaviour
modification in the context of educational institutions
Correlation
of education with Philosophy- Philosophy is a discipline
which is interested in asking questions and revising conclusion. The
primary aim of philosophy is the comprehensive, fundamental and ultimate
knowledge of Being or Reality. Education draws heavily from philosophy.
Knowledge certified by philosophy enters the curriculum of education. Method
approved by philosophy for building knowledge form the basis of methods and
techniques of teaching and the truth arrived at by philosophy, sets the aims,
goals and objectives of education
Correlation of education with Sociology-Sociology
influences the various aspects of education. From sociological view
education is a process of socialization. Socialization is learning of norms of
the group. It is an initiation into social life, a process of becoming a member
of the group. From sociological perspective the aims of education are
development of: civic sense, social efficiency national and emotional
integration, strengthening of democracy, modernization, cultivation of social,
moral and spiritual values and promotion of socialism, secularism and
democracy. The functions of education from sociological perspective are
preservation, transmission and transformation of culture.
Module
2- Indian constitution and education
The constitution is the fundamental law of a
land - lays down the powers and functions of the government and duties and
responsibilities of the citizens. The constituent assembly under the
chairmanship of Dr. Rajendra Prasad prepared the constitution- Dr. B. R
Ambedkar was the chairman of the Drafting Committee
- The
constitution of India is the world's lengthiest written constitution (with 395
articles, 12 schedules and 22 chapters/parts) was adopted by the Constituent
Assembly on November 26, 1949. The constitution came into force w.e.f
January 26, 1950, which is celebrated as Republic Day in India. Our
constitution established India as a Republic, which means that we have
an elected head of the State called the President.
The borrowed features of Indian Constitution
From Unites States of America (USA):
Fundamental Rights, Judicial review, Independence of judiciary and The Preamble
of the constitution.
From Britain:
Parliamentary government and Rule of Law.
From Ireland:
Directive Principles of State Policy and method of election of the president.
1. Preamble of the constitution and values enshrined in it.
Significance: The preamble of the constitution is
described as an identity card of the constitution. It contains the
epitome of the objectives to which the people of a country are permanently
committed. The preamble of the constitution of India summarizes its aim and
objectives. It is the Face of the constitution.
Preamble:
We the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute
India into a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic and to
secure to all its citizens; Justice, social, economic and political;
Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; Equality
of status and of opportunity, and to promote among them all; Fraternity
assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the
Nation; In Our Constituent Assembly this twenty-sixth day of
November, 1949 do hereby Adopt, Enact and Give to
Ourselves This Constitution.
Values enshrined in the Preamble: The
core values contained in the Preamble are: socialism, secularism, democracy
and equality.
Socialism means India follows the principle of equality
and equal distribution of recourses and follows a socialistic pattern of
society for the welfare of the people -welfare of all- social justice and
equality- equality of women, equal rights and privileges to the deprived
sections- welfare measures like old age pension, public distribution system,
subsidies and loans for weaker section, reservation for the marginalized
sections etc.
Secularism means that the state has no official religion
and all the religions are equal before the state. The constitution and
government do not impose any religion upon the citizens. It implies sarva-dharma-samabhava.
- Protection and opportunities to all religions and religious freedom- A
citizen has the right to profess, practice and propagate any religion of
his choice- Secularism is not an anti-religious, irreligious or materialistic
attitude to life but a positive attitude to all that is good in every religion.
Democracy implies that the government derives all its
authority from the Will of the people of India. The people of India
elect their own representatives who make laws for them. It is a way of life as
well as a political system - based on liberty, equality, fraternity, justice
and dignity of the individual- no separation on the basis of sex, colour, place
of birth, financial status, etc. In the wider sense, democracy is an
arrangement for group living.
Equality implies that citizens are equal before law. No
one is above the law. The law makes no distinction on the basis of
status or position - No discrimination can be made against a citizen on the
grounds of race, religion, caste, sex or place of birth -Equal protection of
laws.
2. Fundamental Rights (PART III) and Directive
Principles (PART IV)
Fundamental Rights called justiciable
rights of the citizens- if it is violated the citizen can move to the court
for the enforcement of these rights.
Right to Equality (Art. 14-18)
Equality
before law (Article 14)
Prohibition
of any discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of
birth (Article 15)
Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment (Article 16)
Abolition of untouchability (Article 17) Abolition of titles (Article 18)
Right to Freedom (Art. 19-22)
Freedom of speech and expression, freedom to
assemble peacefully without arms, freedom to form associations and unions, freedom
to move freely throughout the territory of India, freedom to reside and settle
any part of the territory of India and freedom to practice any profession or to
carry on any occupation,
trade or business. (Article 19)
Protection
in respect of conviction for offences. (Article 20) -
Protection of life and personal liberty. (Article 21) - No person
shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure
established by law.
Article 21 A. Right to Education (Incorporated through the 86th
amendment of the constitution in December 2002)
"The state shall provide free and compulsory education to all
children of the age of six to fourteen years, in such manner as the state may, by law,
determine."
Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases. (Article 22)
Right
against Exploitation (Art. 23-24)
Prohibition
of traffic in human beings and forced labor (Article 23)
Prohibition of employment of children in factories etc. (Article 24) -
No child below the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any factory or
mine or in any other hazardous employment.
Right
to Freedom of Religion (Art. 25-28)
The constitution of India defined religion is a matter of faith but
belief in God is not essential to constitute religion. The doctrines of each
religion constitute its essential part.
Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of
religion (Article 25) Freedom to manage religious affairs (Article 26)
Freedom from the payment of taxes for the promotion of any particular
religion (Article 27)
No religious instruction shall be provided in any educational
institutions wholly maintained out of state funds (Article 28)
Cultural and Educational Rights (Art. 29-30)
Protection of the interests of minorities - (Article 29)
Right of minorities to establish and administer educational
institutions. (Article 30) 30 (1) Right of minorities to
establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. 30 (2) The
state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate
against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the
management of a minority, whether based on religion or language.
Right to Constitutional Remedies (Art.32)
Remedies
for enforcement of fundamental rights conferred by this Part. (Article 32)
Directive
principles of state policy ((PART IV- Articles 36-51).
Directive principles are directives to the
government to work for the promotion of the welfare of all - The directive
principles direct the government to work for the economic and social prosperity
of the nation. The speed of our progress towards these ideals depends upon the
determination of the people and the economic resources of the state. Directive
principles are considered as the non-justiciable rights of the citizens.
Though the directive principles are not enforced through the courts, the
government has given due consideration to these principles while enacting laws.
Both the central and the state governments have tried their best, within their
limited resources, to implement the various directive principles
Article
45. Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age
of six years. "The State shall endeavor to
provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete
the age of six years".
Article
46. Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections. "The State shall
promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the
weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and
the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all
forms of exploitation".
Articles Related to Education
|
Articles: |
14, 15, 21A, 28, 29, 30, 51a (k) |
3. Duties
of a citizen: Fundamental duties (article 51-a)
A.
To abide by the constitution and respect its
ideals and institutions; the National Flag and National Anthem
B.
To cherish and follow the noble ideals which
inspired our national struggle for freedom
C.
To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity
and integrity of India
D.
To defend the country and render national
service when called upon to do so
E.
To promote harmony and the spirit of common
brotherhood amongst all people of India transcending religious, linguistic and
regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the
dignity of women
F.
To value and preserve the rich heritage of our
composite culture
G.
To protect and improve the natural environment
including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living
creatures
H.
To develop the scientific temper, humanism and
the spirit of inquiry and reform
I.
To safeguard public property and to abjure
violence
J.
To strive towards excellence in all spheres of
individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to
higher levels of endeavor and achievement.
K.
Who is a parent or guardian to provide
opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, ward between
the age of six and fourteen years. (Incorporated through the 86th
amendment of the constitution in December 2002)
4. Implications
of Right to education Act 2009 and Universalisation of Elementary Education
(UEE)
RTE Act -The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act,
2009
The act came into force on 1st
April 2010. The Act makes education a fundamental right of every child between
the ages of 6 and 14 and specifies minimum norms in elementary schools. The act
has seven chapters that outline the various powers, roles and
responsibilities of the central, state, district and local authorities,
as well as teachers and school administrators.
Chapter
one defines a number of key terms used in the act. Two terms of utmost
importance are 1. Appropriate government: is the central, state or union
territory government which is directly in charge of a particular school or
area; 2. Local Authority: is a Municipal Corporation or Municipal Council or
Zila Parishad or Nagar Panchayat or Panchayat.
Chapter
two: Every child of the age of 6 to 14 years shall have a right to free and
compulsory education in a neighborhood school till completion of
elementary education. No child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or
charges for this purpose. A child suffering from disability shall have the
right to pursue free and compulsory education. When a child of above six years
has not been admitted to any school that child shall be admitted to a class
appropriate to his age after special training and they be allowed to complete
their elementary education. The child has a right to seek transfer to any
school.
Chapter
three: The central and state governments are responsible for establishing
schools where it is not available. The governments must ensure that
there is no discrimination against children from educationally and socially backward
groups, availability of a neighborhood school, provide necessary
infrastructure, provide good quality education, ensure completion of elementary
school, and provide curriculum and teachers training. The local authority
shares the above responsibilities as well as in charge of the academic
calendar,
education of children of migrant families, functioning of the school and
maintaining a record of all children up to fourteen years of age in its
jurisdiction.
Chapter
four deals with the responsibilities of schools and teachers. Government/
Aided schools are required to provide free education to any child that
seeks admission. Private schools and special schools are required to provide
free education to a minimum of 25% of its students especially those from
disadvantaged sections of society. In return the government is responsible to
reimburse private schools the cost per child that a public school incurs to
help aid the free education provided by such schools. Schools are not allowed
to charge capitation fees, screen the children for admission and even though
they are allowed to ask for proof of age they may not deny admission on the
basis of lack of proof. No school may hold back or expel a child before their
completion of elementary education. There is a prohibition against physical
punishment and mental harassment, which if broken is liable to disciplinary
action. All schools must be registered or given a certificate of recognition by
the appropriate government in order to function. There should be a School
Management Committee (SMC), which consists of local authorities, parents or
guardians and teachers for monitoring the school and making a school
development plan. Guidelines for teachers. Teachers should have the
appropriate qualifications. Teachers are responsible for regular attendance,
completing curriculum, supplementing learning in the classroom, and meeting
with parents/guardians of the child on a regular basis. Chapter five deals
with curriculum and completion of elementary education. The authorized academic
authority is required to look after the development of the child, the
values of the constitution, the mother tongue of the child, the mental and
physical well-being of the child, allowing for anxiety and fear free expression
of each child and evaluating and understanding each child's knowledge and
ability. Under this section, no child will be subject to a board examination
but will receive a certification on completion of elementary education.
Chapter
six deals with protection of the right of children. This act holds the
National and State Commissions for the Protection of Child Rights
responsible for upholding the right to education specified in the act and other
rights under section 3 of the Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act,
2005. They are responsible for addressing grievances that have come beyond the
local authority.
Chapter
seven deals with miscellaneous issues like the powers of the various levels
to issue directions to the authorities below them.
At the end of the act there is a schedule that
outlines the number of teachers, building facilities, hours of the teachers,
library and additional equipment required in each school.
Right to education and its implications
Education
is for all- quality education for all - no discrimination in primary education
- education as the birth right of every child. Easy access of primary schools
in the locality-Compulsory enrolment of children in schools and retention-
Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE)
Universalisation of elementary education means
universal provision/ access, enrolment, retention, and quality
education for all children up to the age of 14.
To
achieve UEE: availability
of educational institutions within walking distance of children Universal
Enrolment- registration of students in the school register Universal Retention- students
continues in the class and learns Quality education- Minimum Level of Learning
(MLL)
Problems
in UEE
Wastage- premature withdrawal of children from school
at any stage before the completion of the course
stagnation
- the retention of a child in a lower class for a period of more than
one year
Lack of Quality
Causes
of Wastage
1.
Social causes: Social
backwardness - Illiteracy of parents- Orthodox mentality of parents about the education
of girls-Domestic problems- Child marriage- Poverty- Evil social practices and
traditions
2.
Educational causes: Lack
of facilities in the schools- Appointment of non-committed teachers- Heavy and
uninteresting curriculum- Unscientific teaching methods- Defective system of
evaluation- Fear of examination-lack of contact between parents and teachers-
Lack of finances- Lack of proper administration- Heterogeneity in the
age composition of children in a class
Steps
taken for Universalisation of Elementary Education by Indian Government
❖
Operation Blackboard,
Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL), Early
Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) -Article 45, Non-Formal
Education Programme (NFEP), District
Primary Education Programme (DPEP), Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Article 21A- Education
as a fundamental right, RTE Act 2009- Right to
free and compulsory education act, Mid-day
meal schemes.
Module 3 - Features and Issues of Indian Society
Culture
Edward B. Tylor (1871) "Culture... is that complex whole which
includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, customs, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by a human as a member of society."
Race: A race is a grouping of humans based on
shared physical or social qualities into categories generally viewed as
distinct by society
Racism: Belief that individuals and groups are
superior or inferior to others on the basis of their distinct differences.
Ethnicity: Social identity related to descent and
cultural differences
Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is defined as the
co-existence of diverse culture. It is a viewpoint that accepts and
acknowledges the equality of all cultures. It means that different cultures
have equality of status and its diversity is openly respected. It also means
creation of a society in which ethnic groups are distinct but are equal and
they co-exist in the same society.
Multicultural
aspects of Indian society: India is multicultural in different aspects. There are: 4635 ethnic
communities -751 schedule caste - 461 scheduled tribe - 3500 jatis- 544
languages - 22 official languages and 6 major religions.
Threats to Multiculturalism
1.
Ethnocentrism: it is
an attitude of perceiving one's own culture as the only correct way of living.
It is a tendency to evaluate the culture of others in terms of one's own
culture. It rejects the basic assumption of multiculturalism that the different
cultures across the world cannot have any primacy over others.
2.
Fanaticism:
Religious, political and cultural. It is an extreme form of beliefs that may
lead to unreasonable or violent behaviour.
3.
Assertion of a single identity: Amarthya
Sen maintains that the recognition of plurality of individual identities
forms the basis of a genuine multiculturalism. An individual has multiple
identities like linguistic, religious, ethnic etc. He/she may belong to many
identity groups without any problem. The reduction of an individual into one
unique or primordial identity over all other identity leads to mistrust and
often violence.
Multiculturalism does not mean uncritical acceptance of all practices
an ethnic group. The practice of untouchability, sathi, female circumcision,
honour killings, polygamy, polyandry etc. are to be critically evaluated and
modified through open dialogue. Multiculturalism should not lead to separatism.
Unity in diversity of India
A.
Geographical Unity:
India, has its own fixed boundaries that are natural. On one side there are
high Himalayan mountains and the other three sides are practically
surrounded by oceans.
B.
Religious Unity:
Although various religious groups in India present display external
differences, it is not impossible to trace elements common to all. Each
religion preaches faith in an invisible power and value of life.
C.
Cultural Unity:
Indian culture exhibits cultural unity, reflected in the literature and thought
of different communities despite the obvious differences in customs and
traditions. All groups and communities unanimously accept the inviolable nature
of the family. Many of the festivals are celebrated all over the country in one
and the same manner.
D.
Political Unity: India
is a democratic Republic with a federal structure and a Parliamentary form of
Government. The general elections conducted in every five years contribute
to the sense of political unity.
E.
Emotional Unity: The
very name 'India' brings all Indians emotionally closer to one another.
Although the existence of a large number of languages in India is
detrimental to its emotional integration, Sanskrit, as it is regarded as the
mother of all Indian languages, serves as a significant unifying bond in the
emotional integration of the land.
Threats/
barriers against unity in diversity of India:
Communalism, sectarianism, casteism, linguism, regionalism and
terrorism
Inequality
in Indian Society:
Inequality is the state of not being equal, especially in status,
rights, and opportunities.
In
India various types of inequalities exists:
1. Social:
inequality in terms of social status
2. Economic:
inequality in terms income or wealth,
3.
Gender inequality: gender-based
prejudice and discriminations. Eg. Women are underrepresented in political
activities and decision making processes and they get less wage compared to
men.
4.
Racial and ethnic inequality: inequality
and discrimination based on characteristics such as skin colour and
other physical characteristics or an individual's place of origin or culture.
5. Inequalities
in health: The rich has plenty of access to health care
facilities while the poor is very often neglected and are at the mercy
of government hospitals.
6.
Educational Inequalities: all
the sections of society are not getting equal opportunity for education. Educational
inequality perpetuate social and economic inequality.
Marginalization: Marginalization refers to the lack of
power, participation, integration and economic, social, political disadvantages
experienced by a group of people
According to Amarthya Sen marginalization is
identical to social exclusion. Social exclusion refers to ways in which
individuals may cut off from full participation in the wider society. It
implies a process in which some people are 'left out' form the mainstream of
the society.
Marginalized sections in Indian Society:
Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST),
religious minorities, women, children, people with disability, poor migrants,
people living with HIV/AIDS and sexual minorities are the most marginalized in
Indian society. Sometimes each group faces multiple barriers due to their
multiple identities. For example, in a patriarchal society, disabled women face
double discrimination of being a women and being disabled.
Marginalized groups are also known as
vulnerable groups. These are the people who are exposed to the possibility of
being attacked or harmed, either physically or emotionally.
Effects of Marginalization
Exclusion form labor market, exclusion from adequate income or
resources, exclusion from getting various services and exclusion from social
relations. Labor market exclusion can lead to lack of income and poverty. It may
lead to getting access to basic services like power, water supplies, access to
transport, shops, financial services. Individuals may be unable to participate
in common social activities, such as visiting friends and family, celebrating
special occasions etc. They can be isolated from friends and family or face
lack of practical and emotional support in times of need. People are also
excluded from social relations through a lack of civic engagement, including
voting, getting involved in local or national politics.
Impact of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG) on
Indian Society
Liberalization means
elimination of state control over economic activities. It implies greater
autonomy to the business enterprises in decision-making and removal of
government interference.
Key
aspects of liberalization are:
1.
Abolition of license for industries
2.
Liberalization of Foreign Direct Investment :
3.
Relaxation of Locational Restrictions for
industries
4.
Liberalization of Foreign Technology imports :
5.
Public Sector Reforms : Greater autonomy was
given to the PSUs (Public Sector Units) Privatization: Privatization is
the transfer of control of ownership of economic resources from the public sector
to the private sector. It means a decline in the role of the public sector as
there is a shift in the property rights from the state to private ownership
Another term for privatization is Disinvestment.
The objectives of disinvestment were to raise
the efficiency of PSUs through increased competition, increasing consumer
satisfaction with better quality goods and services, upgrading technology and
most importantly removing political interference.
Globalization
Globalization refers to the growing economic interdependence of
countries worldwide. It implies a free flow of information, ideas, technology,
goods and services, capital and even people across different countries and
societies. It increases connectivity between different markets in the form of
trade, investments and cultural exchanges.
The main elements of globalization are:
1.
To open the domestic markets for inflow of
foreign goods, India reduced customs duties on imports.
2.
Tariff barriers have also been slashed
significantly to encourage trade volume to rise in keeping with the World trade
Organization (WTO) under (GATT) General Agreement on Tariff and Trade.
3.
Increase in FDI and the entry of
Multi-National companies (MNC) and Transnational Companies (TNC)
Impact of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization: Advantages
-Increased investments, trade and rising of
employment opportunities in service sector.
-Free flow of capital and technology enables
developing countries to speed up the process of
industrialization
and lay the path for faster economic progress.
-Products of superior quality are available in
the market due to increased competition, efficiency and productivity of the
businesses and this leads to increased consumer satisfaction.
-
MNCs bring with them foreign capital, technology,
know-how, machines, technical and managerial skills which can be used for the
development of the host nation.
Disadvantages
-Domestic companies are unable to withstand
competition from efficient MNCs which have flooded
Indian markets since their liberalized entry.
-Skilled and efficient labor get absorbed by
these MNCs that offer higher pay and incentives leaving unskilled labor for
employment in the domestic industries. Thus there may be unemployment and
underemployment.
-Payment of dividends and royalties has in fact
led to a rise in the outflow of foreign capital.
-Globalization poses certain risks for any
country in the form of business cycles, fluctuations in international prices,
specialization in few exportable and so on.
-It increases the disparities in the incomes of
the rich and poor
-It leads commercial imperialism as the
developed nations tend to exploit the resources of the developing nations.
-Globalization leads to fusion of cultures and
inter-mingling of societies to such an extent that there may be a loss of
identities and traditional values. It gives rise to mindless aping of western
lifestyles and mannerisms however ill-suited they may be.
-It leads to overcrowding of cities
Impact of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization: in
Education
-Improvement in the quality of education
imparted in educational institutions
-Opportunities for students to go abroad and
study
-Entry for foreign students in Indian
-educational institutions
-There is a great demand for technical, job
oriented courses and para-medical courses
-Establishment of self-supporting /
self-financing educational institutions, international schools.
-Many of the universities and educational
institutions started twinning programmes with foreign
educational institutions.
-Drastic change in the culture of the campus of
the educational institution.
Wastage
and Stagnation
Wastage is the premature withdrawal of children from
school at any stage before the completion of the course.
Stagnation
is the retention of a child in a lower class for a period of more than
one year/ lack of quality
Causes
of Wastage and Stagnation
Social
causes
Social backwardness (SC, ST), Illiteracy of
parents, Orthodox mentality of parents about the education of girls, Domestic
problems, Child marriage, Poverty, Helping parents to earn more, Evil social
practices and traditions
Educational
causes
Lack of facilities in the schools, Faulty admission policy,
Appointment of non- committed teachers, Heavy and uninteresting curriculum,
Unscientific teaching methods, Defective system of evaluation, Fear of
examination, Lack of contact between parents and teachers, Lack of finances,
Lack of proper administration, Heterogeneity in the age composition
Remedial
measures & Government Initiatives to overcome wastage and stagnation
•
Revision and improvement of curriculum
•
Change in teaching method
•
Stoppage of child marriage
•
Minimizing heterogeneity in the age
composition
•
Special allowance for teachers in rural areas
•
Establish schools in needy areas
•
Adoption of new techniques of evaluation
•
Adjusting school hours
•
Improve the facilities in the school
•
Arrange
provisions for reducing
the costs of
education
Educated
unemployment
According to the International Labor Organization (ILO) guidelines, a
person is unemployed if the person is (a)
not working, (b) currently available for work and (c) seeking work. Unemployment
existing among the educated people is known as 'educated unemployment'.
Education prepares individuals with knowledge and skills which are needed for
development of all sectors of economy. It supplies skilled and trained Human
power which is demanded by various sectors of national economy. The
employability of an individual depends up on his/ her quality and efficiency.
Fur this quality education should be imparted in educational institution.
Reasons
for Educated unemployment:
1.
Outdated curriculum and syllabus: Curriculum and syllabus at all levels-
especially in higher education is outdated. We are still following that age old
curriculum. We fail to keep pace with the changing world. We must regularly
update our curriculum since failure in this regard will lead to a situation
where we cannot provide employment to those who would pass out from
institutions of higher learning.
2. Lack of knowledge in practical aspects:
Knowledge in terms of practical aspects will also be of great importance and
human resources need to keep pace with latest trends in their own field.
3.
Lack of proper skill development to those who study in institutions of higher
education:
4. Lack of enterprising attitude among young people: Those who pass
out from institutions of higher learning would look for a job where they would
be employed by others. But they lack an enterprising attitude which would make
them self-employed. There are many professions and occupations where they can
earn for themselves.
5.
Preference for white collar job and lack of readiness to accept jobs which
involves physical/ manual labour.
6.
Absence of good enthusiasm for vocational education
7.
Mismatch between supply and demand: Due to the mushrooming of private
self-financing educational institution, especially in engineering and medical
profession, there are many qualified people. But most of them are not able to
find a job due to the lack of demand for them. There is no state mechanism in
India in order to regulate the supply and demand side of the professional
education.
Population Education
Population education means educating the students about the effects of
large population or ever increasing population and its problems. Population
education is an educational programme which provides for a study of the
population phenomenon so as to enable the students to make rational decisions
towards problems arising out of rapid population growth
Effects of Population Growth in India
Difficulty in providing employment to growing
population- Problems of utilization of manpower-underemployment and
unemployment, including unemployment of educated persons- Over-strained
infrastructure- Pressure on land and other renewable natural resources-
Inequitable distribution of income-increase in crimes and anti-social
activities.
Population Policy of India
Controlling the growth of population, by adopting family planning.
Family planning implies two things: (I) limiting the number of children to be
born to a couple to one or two; and (ii) determining the spacing of children.
Inclusive Education
Inclusive education means that all children, regardless of their
ability level, are included in a mainstream classroom, or in the most
appropriate or least restrictive environment (LRE), that students of all
ability levels are taught as equals, and that teachers must adjust their
curriculum and teaching methodologies so that all students benefit.
Inclusive education is a process of
strengthening the capacity of the education system to reach out to all
learners. It involves restructuring the culture, policies and practices in
schools so that they can respond to the diversity of students in their
locality. For a school to be inclusive, the attitudes of everyone in the
school, including administrators, teachers, and other students, should be
positive towards students with physical and sensory disabilities.
Need and significance of inclusive education
Inclusive education is essential on account of the following reasons
All
children are able to be part of their community and develop a sense of
belonging and become better prepared for life in the community as children and adults.
It provides
better opportunities for learning. Children with varying abilities are often
better motivated when
they learn in classes surrounded by other children.
The
expectations of all the children are higher. Successful inclusion attempts to
develop an individual's strengths
and gifts.
It
allows children to work on individual goals while being with other students
their own age.
It
encourages the involvement of parents in the education of their children and
the activities of their local
schools.
It
fosters a culture of respect and belonging. It also provides the opportunity to
learn about and accept individual
differences.
It
provides all children with opportunities to develop friendships with one
another. Friendships provide role models and opportunities for growth.
Teaching strategies for inclusive Education
>
Multi- sensory teaching strategies using
audio, videos etc.
>
Co-operative teaching-learning
>
Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS)
>
Learning in small groups
>
Play-based strategy
Features of Indian Society:
Positive
features: Unity in diversity, multiculturalism, secularism, tolerance, democracy
etc.
Negative features: inequalities of various
types, marginalized sections of the society, religious fanaticism, casteism
etc.
Module 4: Education Commissions in India
1. University Education Commission (1948- '49)
The Government of India, soon after the
independence, appointed University Education Commission under the Chairmanship
of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan to make recommendations in higher education. The
commission was inaugurated on December 6, 1948 and it submitted its report in
August 1949. This is the first commission in post independent India.
Aims of University Education Commission
1.
Initiation into a New Life: The
commission defined education as follows: "Education, according to the Indian
tradition, is not merely a means to earning a living; nor is it only a nursery
of thought or a school for citizenship. It is initiation into the life of
spirit, a training of human souls in the pursuit of truth and the practice of
virtue. It is a second birth, divitiyamjanma"
2.
Leadership for political change
The
commission argued that the country should attain freedom from want, disease and
ignorance, by the application and development of scientific and technical
knowledge. For this university education should form leaders so that they can
transform the society.
3.
Inculcation of values: The
commission strongly argued that university education should inculcate the constitutional
values of India like democracy, justice, liberty and equality among the all the
university students. University education should develop thought for the poor
and the suffering, regard and respect for women, faith in human brotherhood
regardless of race or colour, nation or religion, love of peace and freedom,
abhorrence of cruelty and ceaseless devotion to the claims of justice.
4.
Integrated Way of Life: According
to the university education commission the purpose of education is to provide
a coherent picture of the universe and an integrated way of life. University education
should promote sense of perspective, a synoptic vision, and a samanvaya
of the different items of knowledge.
Vision of a university
A. Universities as the Organs
of Civilization
University should preserve and transmit the
cultural heritages of civilizations.
B. Intellectual Adventure: The commission wanted that
every University should the homes of intellectual adventure.
C. Wisdom
and Knowledge
The commission pointed out that our ancient
teachers tried to teach subjects and impart wisdom. Their ideal was wisdom
along with knowledge jnanamvijnana-sahitam.
Role of the Teacher
The primary responsibility of the teacher is to arouse the interest of
the pupil in the field of study for which he is responsible. S/he has not
merely to convey factual information and the principles and generalizations
which accrue from them, but has to stimulate the spirit of enquiry and of
criticism so that minds may acquire the habit of exercising independent and
unbiased judgement, and learn to discriminate between adequate and inadequate,
relevant and irrelevant data, and to avoid the extremes of haste and indecision
in arriving at conclusions.
The true educator should understand the
psychological make-up, the svabhava of the pupil and adapt his/her
teaching to the mind of the pupil. Teachers should discover the tendencies and
weaknesses of the individual pupils, encourage their desirable aptitudes and
cure the weaknesses to which they are inclined.
Other major thrust areas of recommendations
A.
The commission suggested the following
measures for the improvement of the status of teachers Recommended higher pay
scale for university teachers.
Recommended provident fund and residential accommodation for teachers
near the campus of the university. Recommended proper recruitment of teachers
based on the merits of academic distinction, teaching ability and leadership in
students’ activities.
B)
The commission also recommended the
establishment of a University Grants Commission (UGC) to promote and
co-ordinate the university education and for the determination and maintenance
of standards for teaching, examinations and research in universities.
C)
The commission suggested measures for the
improvement professional educational courses like engineering
and technology, legal education and medical education.
2. Secondary Education Commission (Mudhaliar Commission) 1952-'53
The Government of India appointed the Secondary Education Commission
(1952-'53) on September 23, 1952 under the Chairmanship of Dr. Lakshmana Swami
Mudhaliar, the Vice- Chancellor of University of Madras. The commission
submitted its report in June 1953. It was appointed to enquire into and report
on the present position of Secondary Education in India in all its aspects and
to suggest measures for its reorganization and improvement.
Defects of the secondary education
The commission identified the following defects of the then existing
secondary education:
Education was too bookish and mechanical, stereotyped and rigidly
uniform and did not cater to the different aptitudes of the pupils.
It did it develop those basic qualities of discipline, cooperation and
leadership which make the pupil function as useful citizens.
The stress on examinations, the over-crowded
syllabus, the methods of teaching, and lack of proper material amenities tended
to make education a burden rather than a joyous experience to the youthful
mind.
Aims
of Education
According to the commission the following are
the aims of education: The educational system must make its contribution to the
development of habits, attitudes and qualities of character, which will enable
its citizens to bear worthily the responsibilities of democratic citizenship
and to counteract all the forces which hinder the emergence of secular outlook.
The other urgent needs of our country are; to improve productive efficiency, to
increase national wealth and to raise the standard of life of the people. The
other aims of education are;
•
Citizenship training
•
Cultivation of discipline, cooperation, social
sensitiveness and tolerance.
•
Improvement of vocational efficiency
•
Development of personality
•
Education for character
•
Education for leadership
•
Improvement of productive efficiency
•
Development of secular and national outlook
Organizational pattern of Secondary Education
The commission recommended the following organizational structure for
secondary education after the 4 or 5 years of primary or junior basic education:
•
A Middle or Junior Secondary or Senior Basic
stage which should cover a period of 3 year
•
A Higher Secondary stage which should cover a
period of 4 years.
Other recommendations of the commission
Place of language:
Mother tongue or regional language should generally be the medium of
instruction throughout the Secondary stage. English and Hindi should be
introduced at the end of the Junior Basic stage. Thus the commission
recommended study of three languages namely mother tongue or regional
language, English and Hindi.
Curriculum:
The commission defined curriculum as the totality of experiences that
pupil receives through the manifold activities that go on in the school,
in the workshop, playgrounds and in the numerous informal contacts between
teachers and pupils.
Curriculum in the middle stage: the curriculum should
include- languages, social studies, general science, mathematics, art
and music, craft and physical education. At the high school or higher
secondary stage, diversified courses of instruction should be provided for
the pupils. This should include humanities, sciences, technical subjects,
commercial subjects, agricultural subjects, fine arts, and home sciences.
Certain core subjects should be common to all students like, languages, general
science, social studies and a craft.
Multipurpose Schools: The commission recommended
multipurpose schools. A Multipurpose school seeks to provide varied
types of courses for students with diverse aims, interests and abilities. It
endeavors to provide for each individual pupil suitable opportunity to use and
develop his natural aptitude and inclinations in the special course of studies
chosen by him.
Methods
of teaching: The emphasis in teaching should shift from
verbalism and memorization to learning through purposeful, concrete and
realistic situations and, for this the principles of activity method and
project method should be assimilated in school practice.
Restructuring of examination system
Examinations may be either internal or external. There should not be
too many external examinations. Purely essay type examination should be reduced
as far as possible. The final assessment of the pupil should not be based
entirely on the results of the external examination; other things such as
internal tests and the school records maintained by teachers should be taken
into consideration and due credit should be given to them.
3. Indian Education Commission (Kothari Commission) 1964-66
Indian Education commission was appointed in
July 1964, under the chairmanship of Prof. D.S. Kothari. The unique feature of
this Commission was not to limit its inquiry to any specific sector or aspect
of education but to have a comprehensive review of the entire educational
system and hence it is known as Indian Education Commission. Kothari commission
submitted the report titled as Education and National Development' in
June 1966.
The
opening sentence of the report "the destiny of India is now being
shaped in her classrooms" denotes the value of education that
determine the level of prosperity, welfare and security of the people and
future of the country.
Major Recommendations
National Objectives of education (aims of Education)
Education should be developed so as to
increase productivity, achieve social and national integration, strengthen
democracy, accelerate the process of modernization and cultivate social, moral
and spiritual values.
A.
Education and Productivity
To increase productivity, the commission
recommended; science education as an integral part of school course, work
experience as an important aspect of general education, vocational education
especially at the secondary school stage to meet the needs of industry,
agriculture, commerce and community and improvement of scientific and technical
education and research at the university stage.
b)
Education for social and national
integration
India is a land of diversities. This vast country inhabited by people belongs
to different castes, creeds, religions, languages and colour. In order to
maintain unity and integrity through an emotional feeling of oneness is a
difficult task. To keep the unity and integrity of our country, education
should promote the spirit of social and national integration. According to the
commission common school system, social service, National service schemes
(NSS), teaching of languages, literature, philosophy and history of India would
go a long way in promoting national integration.
c)
Education for modernization
Due to the advancements in the field of
science and technology, revolutionary changes and developments had occurred in
all walks of human life. The scenario of education too is under these changes.
The terrific speed in knowledge acquisition, transmission and processing
demands a radical transformation in the educational system. The modern
education should awaken curiosity, interest, attitudes and sense values and
skills in pupils with the help of science and technology and their
advancements.
d)
Development of democracy
The success of democracy depends on the
enlightened citizenship and enlightened citizenship is based on the education
of the masses. Education is the most powerful instrument to make the people
aware of their rights and responsibilities. It is this awareness that assists
the development of democracy in a country like India, the largest democracy of
the world.
e)
Cultivation of social, moral and
spiritual values
Education system should emphasize the
development of fundamental, social, moral and spiritual values. It is necessary
for the multi-religious, democratic state to promote tolerance in the study of
all religions to train the people to live in peace and harmony. The commission
recommended the study of major religions of the world. The expanding knowledge
and the growing power that it places at the disposal of modern society, must,
therefore, be combined with strengthening and deepening of the sense of social
responsibility and healthy appreciation of moral and spiritual values.
Educational Structure
General education should last for a period of 10 years (4 years lower
primary, 3 years of higher primary and 3 years of lower secondary education).
Higher secondary education should be of two years. The graduate course should
be extended from two to three years.
Teacher status
It is necessary to improve the economic, social and professional
status of the teachers. The scale of pay of teachers of Government and
non-Government schools should be the same. A suitable increase should be
allowed in the scales of the pay of teachers. The quality, qualifications and
character of teachers should be up to the mark. The promotion prospects,
conditions of service, allowances and their status should be improved in order
to attract the best persons to the teaching profession.
Isolation of teachers' education should be
removed and extension service department should be established in each training
institution. A State Board of Teachers' Education should be established in each
State. The period of training of the teachers with secondary course should be
two years. The course of M.Ed. should be 1-1/2 years. The teachers of the
training colleges should have two degrees namely, the Master's Degree and the
Degree in Education. The students of the training institutions should be given
free education.
Common School System
The educational system is to become a powerful instrument of national
development in general and social and national integration in particular, we
must move towards the goal of a common school system of public education.
•
Which will be open to all children
irrespective of caste, creed, community, religion, economic sanctions or social
status;
•
Which will maintain adequate standard in all
schools and provide at least a reasonable proportion of quality institutions;
•
In which no tuition fee will be charged;
•
Which would meet the needs of the average
parent so that he would not ordinarily feel the need to send his children to
expensive school outside the system.
Equalization of Educational Opportunities
In India two types of inequalities are found
in the field of education - in the education of boys and girls and in the
education of developed and backward classes. In order to remove these
inequalities, there is a need of reducing the cost of education. Sufficient
number of textbooks should be kept in the libraries of educational
institutions. Meritorious students should be granted financial help to enable
them to purchase the textbooks. 15% of students should be granted scholarships
at the secondary education stage. The education of the backward classes in
general and of the tribal people in particular, is a major programme of
equalization and of social and national integration.
Curriculum: The commission recommended
the following curriculum for the different classes.
Lower primary - one language -mother tongue or regional
language, Mathematics, Study of environment, Creative activities, Work
Experience, Social service, Health education, etc.
Higher
Primary - Two languages: Mother tongue or regional language, Hindi or English.
Mathematics, Science, Social studies, Art, Work experience, Social
service, Physical education, Education in moral and spiritual values etc.
Lower secondary - Three languages in non-Hindi speaking
areas, generally there should be the following languages: Mother tongue
or regional language, Hindi and English. In Hindi speaking areas, generally
there should be the following languages: Mother tongue or regional language,
English or Hindi, One modern Indian language besides Hindi. Mathematics,
Science, History, Geography, and Civics, Art, Work experience, Physical
education, Education of moral and spiritual values. Etc.
Higher Secondary - Any two languages, which should include
any modern Indian language, any modern foreign language and any
classical language. Any
three subjects to be selected from the following subjects;
One additional language, History, Geography,
Economics, Logic, Psychology Sociology, Art, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics,
Biology, Geology, Home science, Work experience, Physical education, Arts and
crafts, Education in moral and spiritual values etc.
Guidance
and Counselling
Guidance and counselling should be regarded as an integral part of
education, meant for all students and aimed at assisting the individual to make
decisions and adjustments from time to time. Hence adequate arrangements should
be made in all secondary schools to introduce guidance service with a trained
counsellor.
Evaluation
Evaluation, a continuous process, and forms an
integral part of the total system of education and is intimately related to
educational objectives. Examination should become a valid and reliable measure
of educational achievement and revised techniques should be made for measuring
those important aspects of the student's growth that cannot be measured through
written examinations.
Establishment
of School Complexes
Each higher primary school should be
integrally related to ten lower primary schools that exist in its neighborhood
so that they form one complex of educational facilities. The headmaster of the
higher primary school should provide an extension service to the lower primary
schools in his charge and it will be his responsibility to see that they
function properly. There would be a committee under the chairmanship of the
headmaster of the secondary school (all headmasters of the higher and lower
primary schools in the area being members) which will plan the work and give
guidance to all the schools in the area.
The
Neighborhood School
All
children in the neighborhood will be required to attend the school in the
locality.
The
Indian Education Service
The creation of the Indian Education Service
is a step in the right direction and if organized on proper lines, such a
service would help the progress of education
Language
Policy- Three-language formula
The
Kothari Commission recommended;
•
Mother tongue or regional language
•
National language or the Union or associate
national language so long as it exists
•
One modern Indian or European language
•
The most suitable stage for learning the
three-languages is the lower secondary stage
4. NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION 1986
>The Essence and Role of Education (Aims of Education)
Education is for all and it is fundamental to
the all-round development of an individual, material and spiritual. Education
has an acculturating role. It refines sensitivities and perceptions that
contribute to national cohesion, a scientific temper and independence of mind
and spirit - thus furthering the goals of socialism, secularism and democracy
enshrined Constitution.
> National System of Education
(i)
The concept of a National System of Education
implies that, up to a given level, all students, irrespective of caste, creed,
location or sex, have access to education of a comparable quality.
(ii)
National system of Education envisages a
common educational structure.
(iii)
The National system of Education will be based
on national curricular framework which contains a common core along with other
components that are flexible. All educational programmes will be carried out in
strict conformity with secular values.
(iv)
Minimum levels of learning will be laid down
for each stage of education.
>Education for Equality
(i)
The NEP lays special emphasis on the removal
of disparities and to equalize educational opportunity by attending to the
specific needs of those who have been denied equality so far.
(ii)
Education will be used as an agent of basic
change in the status of women.
(iii)
The whole nation must pledge itself to the
eradication of illiteracy particularly in the 15-35 group.
>Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)
(I) recognizing the holistic nature of child development, viz.,
nutrition, health and social, mental, physical, moral and emotional development
the NEP recommended ECCE and to integrate it with the Integrated Child Development
Services (ICDS).
(ii)
Recommended Day-care centers as a support
service for universalization of primary education, to enable girls engaged in
taking care of siblings to attend school and as a support service for working
women belonging to poorer sections.
(iii)
Recommended child centered and activity based
process of learning for the primary stage.
(iii)
Recommended Operation Blackboard, as to
improve the facilities of primary schools of the country. Under this scheme,
each school is provided with:
(a)
at least two reasonably large all-weather
rooms along with separate toilet facilities for boys and girls;
(b)
at least two teachers (one male and one
female);
(c)
essential teaching and learning materials
including blackboards, maps, charts, a small library, toys and games, and some
equipment for work experience.
(iv)
Pace setting schools (Navodaya schools) will
be established in various parts of the country for children with special
talents.
(v)
Vocational education intended to prepare
students for occupations will be implemented.
Higher Education
Higher education provides people with an
opportunity to reflect on the critical, social, economic, cultural, moral and
spiritual issues facing humanity. It contributes to national development
through dissemination of specialized knowledge and skills. It is therefore, a
crucial factor for survival. Being at the apex of the educational pyramid, it
has also a key role in producing teachers for the education system.
>Open Universities and Distance Education
The Open University system has been initiated
in order to augment opportunities for higher education and as an instrument of
democratizing education. The Indira Gandhi National Open University,
established in 1985 in fulfilment of these objectives, will be strengthened.
>Reorienting the Content and Process of Education
(i)
In our culturally plural society, education
should foster universal and eternal values.
(ii)
Work-experience, viewed as purposive and
meaningful manual labor, organized as an integral part of
the learning process and resulting in either goods or services useful
to the community is considered as an essential component of all stages of
education.
Modification of the Examination System.
The Examination system should be modified in the following manner:
I.
Elimination of excessive element of chance
and subjectivity; II. The de-emphasis of memorization;
III. Continuous and comprehensive evaluation that
incorporates both scholastic and non- scholastic aspects of education,
spread over the total span of instructional time;
The Teacher
The status of the teacher reflects the socio-cultural ethos of a
society; it is said that no people can rise above the level of its teachers.
The Government and the community should endeavor to create conditions which
will help motivate and inspire teachers on constructive and creative lines.
Teachers should have the freedom to innovate, to devise appropriate methods of
communication and activities relevant to the needs and capabilities of and the
concerns of the community.
5.
Revised National Policy on Education
(1992)
A committee was set up under the chairmanship of Acharya Ramamurthi in
May 1990 to review NPE and to make recommendations for its modifications. A
committee under the chairmanship of Janardhana Reddy discussed the
modifications suggested by Ramamurthi committee and revised the NPE in 1992 The
following are some of the major recommendations made in the revised NPE 1992.
Plus
Two as Part of School Education
Recommended
the plus two stage as part of school education throughout the country.
National
Literacy Mission
National Literacy Mission for alleviation of poverty, national
integration, environmental conservation, observance of small family norm,
promotion of women's equality, universalization of primary education and basic
health care.
Elementary
Education
Elementary education should emphasize three
aspects. Universal access and enrolment, universal retention of children up to
the 14 years of age and a substantial improvement in the quality of education
to enable all children to achieve essential levels of learning.
School
Facilities
The
revised NEP recommended the enlarging of the scope of operation black board to
provide three reasonably large rooms that are usable in all weather, and black
boards, maps, charts, toys, other necessary learning aids and school library.
It also recommended that at least three teachers should work in every school
and 50% of teachers recruited in future should be women.
Non-Formal Education
The
Revised NEP recommended the strengthening and enlarging of non-formal education
for school dropouts, for children from habitations without schools, working
children and girls who cannot attended whole-day schools.
6. National
Curriculum Framework 2005
The
national curriculum framework for school Education (NCFSE/NCF) 2005 was
developed by NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training, New
Delhi). It is based on the document 'Learning without Burden' by Professor Yash
Pal Committee.
In
the report, Learning without Burden, the committee pointed out that learning at
school should be joyful experience. The committee pointed out the following defects
of the curriculum. Convention
of using textbooks as the basis for examination and the impulse to teach
everything arises from lack of faith in children's own creative instinct and their
capacity to construct knowledge out of their experience.
The
size of textbooks has been growing over the years and forces children to
memories information and to reproduce it. Learning for the sake of being
examined in a mechanical manner takes away the joy of being young, and delinks
school knowledge from everyday experience.
Vision,
Perspective and aims of education according to NCFSE 2005
•
Strengthening of the national system of
education in the context of pluralistic society of India.
•
Reducing the curriculum load based on insights
provided in 'Learning without Burden'.
•
Curricular practices based on the values
enshrined in the Constitution, such as democracy, socialism, social justice,
equality and secularism.
•
Ensuring quality education for all children.
•
Developing citizens who are committed to
democratic practices, values, sensitivity towards gender justice, problems
faced by the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, needs of the disabled,
and capacities to participate in economic and
political processes.
Basic
tenets/ guiding principles of curriculum development
•
Creating an inclusive environment in the
classroom for all students.
•
Learner engagement for construction of
knowledge and fostering of creativity.
•
Active learning through the experiential mode.
•
Adequate room for voicing children's thoughts,
curiosity, and questions in curricular practices.
•
Connecting knowledge across disciplinary
boundaries to provide a broader frame work for insightful construction of
knowledge.
•
Forms of learner engagement — observing,
exploring, discovering, analyzing, critical reflection, etc.— are as important
as the content of knowledge.
•
Activities for developing critical
perspectives on socio-cultural realities need to find space in curricular
practices.
•
Critical Pedagogy - an approach to teaching
and learning which provides an opportunity for teachers and students to reflect
critically on issues in terms of their political, social, economic and moral
aspects. It is concerned with transforming the oppressive social structures of
the society. Critical pedagogy encourages teachers and students to not only be
aware of injustices but to take action to transform the practices and
structures that perpetuate them.
Suggestions for Teacher Education
Teacher education programs need to be reformulated and strengthened so
that the teacher can be an:
encouraging,
supportive and humane facilitator in teaching-learning situations to enable
learners (students) to discover their talents, to realize their physical and
intellectual potentialities to the fullest, to develop character and desirable social and human
values to function as responsible citizens. active member of a group of persons who make
conscious efforts for curricular renewal so that it is relevant to changing social
needs and the personal needs of learners. Reformulated teacher education programmes that
place thrust on the active involvement of learners in the process of knowledge
construction, shared context of learning, teacher as a facilitator of knowledge
construction, multidisciplinary nature of knowledge of teacher education,
integration theory and practice
dimensions, and engagement with issues and concerns of contemporary Indian
society from a critical perspective.
7. National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education 2009
National Curriculum Framework for Teacher
Education (NCFTE) 2009 was developed by National Council for Teacher Education
(NCTE) to modify and revise the teacher education programmes of India. NCFTE
2009 has six chapters titled as follows
1.
Context, concerns and vision of teacher
education
2.
Curriculum areas of initial teacher
preparation
3.
Transacting the Curriculum and Evaluating the
Developing Teacher
4.
Continuing professional development and
support for in-service teachers
5.
Preparing Teacher Educators
6.
Implementation strategies
The
NCFTE 2009 has the following major themes:
The defects of the teacher education system
A)
Knowledge is treated as 'given', embedded in
the curriculum and accepted without question; there is no engagement with the
curriculum. Curriculum, syllabi and textbooks are never critically examined by
the student teacher or the regular teacher.
B)
Language proficiency of the teacher needs to
be enhanced, but existing programmes do not recognize the centrality of
language in the curriculum.
C)
Teacher education programmes provide little
scope for student teachers to reflect on their experiences.
D)
Disciplinary knowledge is viewed as
independent of professional training in pedagogy.
E)
Repeated 'practice' in the teaching of a
specified number of isolated lessons is considered a sufficient condition for
professional development.
F)
It is assumed that links between learning
theories and models and teaching methods are automatically formed in the
understanding developed by student teachers.
G)
There is no opportunity for teachers to
examine their own biases and beliefs and reflect on their own experiences as
part of classroom discourse and enquiry.
H)
Theory courses have no clear link with
practical work and ground realities.
I)
The evaluation system followed in teacher
education programmes is too information-oriented, excessively quantitative and
lacks comprehensiveness.
J)
Apart from conceptual and pedagogical aspects,
existing programmes need to develop certain attitudes, dispositions, habits and
interests in a teacher. The present evaluation protocol has no place for
evaluating these aspects
Vision
of NCFTE 2009 on Teacher Education
Teachers need to be prepared to care for
children, enjoy to be with them, seek knowledge, own responsibility towards
society and work to build a better world, develop sensitivity to the problems
of the
learners, commitment to justice and zeal for social reconstruction.
Teachers need to view learners as active participants in their own
learning and not as mere recipients of knowledge; need to encourage their
capacity to construct knowledge; ensure that learning shifts away from rote
methods. Learning is to be viewed as a search for meaning out of personal
experiences and knowledge
generation as a continuously evolving process of reflective learning.
Teacher education must engage with theory
along with field experiences to help trainees to view knowledge not as external
to the learner but as something that is actively constructed during learning.
Teacher education should integrate academic knowledge and professional learning
into a meaningful whole.
Teachers need to be trained in organizing
learner-centered, activity-based, participatory learning experiences - play,
projects, discussion, dialogue, observation, visits, integrating academic learning
with productive
work.
Teacher education should engage teachers with the curriculum, syllabi
and textbooks to critically examine them rather than taking them as 'given' and accepted without
question.
Teacher
education should provide opportunity to student-teachers for reflection and independent
study without
packing the training schedule with teacher-directed activities alone.
The
programme should engage teachers with children in real contexts rather than
teach them about children through theories alone. It should help them understand
the psycho-social attributes and needs of learners, their special abilities and
characteristics, their preferred mode of cognition, motivation and learning
resulting from home and community socialization.
The
programme should help teachers or potential teachers to develop social
sensitivity and
consciousness
and finer human sensibilities.
Teacher education programmes need to broaden
the curriculum to include different traditions of knowledge; educate teachers
to connect school knowledge with community knowledge and life outside the school.
Teacher education programmes need to help
teachers appreciate the potential of hands-on experience as a pedagogic medium
both inside and outside the classroom; and work as integral to the process of education.
Teachers
need to re-conceptualize citizenship education in terms of human rights and
approaches of critical pedagogy; emphasize environment and its protection,
living in harmony within oneself and with natural and social environment;
promote peace, democratic way of life, constitutional values of equality, justice, liberty,
fraternity and secularism, and caring values.
3.
Role of Teachers
A)
Care for children and love to be with them,
understand children within social, cultural and political contexts, develop
sensitivity to their needs and problems, treat all children equally.
B)
Perceive children not as passive receivers of
knowledge, augment their natural propensity to construct meaning, discourage
rote learning, make learning a joyful, participatory and meaningful activity.
C)
Critically examine curriculum and textbooks,
contextualize curriculum to suit local needs.
D)
Do not treat knowledge as a 'given', embedded
in the curriculum and accepted without question.
E)
Organize learner-centered, activity-based,
participatory learning experiences - play, projects, discussion, dialogue,
observation, visits and learn to reflect on their own practice.
F)
Integrate academic learning with social and
personal realities of learners, responding to diversities in the classroom.
G)
Promote values of peace, democratic way of
life, equality, justice, liberty, fraternity, secularism and zeal for social
reconstruction.
Module 5 RECENT TRENDS IN INDIAN EDUCATION
1.
District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)
District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was launched in 1993-94.
DPEP was designed to universalize primary education, improve school efficiency
and effectiveness, and address the special needs of girls and rural
populations. DPEP adopts a holistic approach to universalize access, improve
retention and learning achievement and to reduce disparities among
disadvantaged groups.
DPEP created a system in which local village
community members, parents and staff supported schools. In 1994, the program
was officially launched with 42 participating Districts in 7 States. Through
DPEP programme several states could improve the level of primary education. It
was successful in providing access to primary education, reducing dropout
rates, increasing the achievement levels and reducing gap among gender and
social groups.
Objectives
of DPEP
a)
Provide access to elementary education for all
children formal or non-formal education.
b)
Enrolment and retention of all children at
elementary level
c)
To control the stagnation and decrease dropout
in school.
d)
Attainment of minimum level of learning (MLL)
by all children.
e)
Capacity building of teachers and society,
maximum decentralization and community participation.
f)
To increase the enrollment in school from
every unit of society.
Achievements
of DPEP
a)
Improvement in enrolment and retention of
children at elementary level
b)
Increased community participation in the
management of the school
c)
Improvements in the infrastructure facilities
of the schools
d)
Development of child- centered textbooks and activity-oriented
learning materials
e)
Development of innovative teaching methods
like play way, observation and field study
f)
Training for teachers to adopt the
child-centered and activity-oriented teaching methods
Drawbacks
of DPEP
The activity-based textbooks prepared under
DPEP lacked quality. Sometimes, the new textbooks attracted a great deal of
criticism, as they introduced new and unfamiliar ways of learning. When
teachers were trained for activity-based learning, they too had difficulty in
grasping concepts.
With the implementation of DPEP many states
appointed 'para' teachers, contractual employees with low salary. This happened
because many states needed large numbers of additional teachers to make primary
education universal, but the finances of most state governments were in poor
shape. As the pressure to make primary education universal grew, many State
governments attempted to bring down the cost of teachers
so that they could hire more of them and began to appoint para- teachers. This
has led to the lowering of quality education.
2. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
The National Policy on Education 1986 and the Revised National Policy
1992 gave top priority to the achievement of Universal Elementary Education.
Many projects and programmes at the micro and macro levels were undertaken in
the past in this direction. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was introduced during the
Ninth Plan (1997-2002) to Universalize Elementary Education. Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan means education for all and access to education for all. It is a
centrally sponsored scheme started in the year 2000.
Objectives
of SSA
a)
All children by 2003 will be in schools,
Alternative Schools, 'Back to School' camps.
b)
All children should complete five years of primary
schooling by 2007
c)
All children should complete eight years of
elementary schooling by 2010
d)
To provide useful and relevant elementary
education for all children in the age group of 6 to 14 by 2010.
e)
Focus on elementary education of satisfactory
quality with emphasis on education for life.
f)
Bridge all gender and social category gaps at
primary stage by 2007 and at elementary education level by 2010
g)
Universal retention of all children by 2010.
Achievements of SSA
1.
SSA is a response to the demand for quality
basic education all over the country. It is an effort effectively involving the
Panchayat Raj Institutions, School Management Committees, Village and Urban
Slum level Education Committees, PTA, Mother Teacher Associations, Tribal
Autonomous Councils and other grass-root level structures in the management of
elementary schools.
2.
Emphasis to be laid on retention and
achievement rather than on mere enrolment.
3.
Adopting an incremental approach for creating
school facilities.
4.
Focus to be shifted from educationally
backward states to educationally backward districts.
5.
Universal access to schooling facilities
particularly to girls, desegregated groups and out of school children.
6.
Improvement in school effectiveness, teacher
competence, training and motivation.
7.
Decentralization of planning and management
through Panchayat Raj Institutions/ Village Education Communities and stress on
participative processes.
8.
Convergence of different schemes of elementary
education and related services such as early childhood care and education,
school health and nutrition programmes etc.
9.
Free uniforms, mid-day meals, textbooks,
umbrellas, starting of a number of schools in rural areas have been launched.
10. SSA
could universalize elementary education by community ownership of the school
system. It attempted to provide opportunities for improving human capabilities
to all children, through the provision of community owned quality education in
a mission mode.
Drawbacks of SSA
a)
The programme lacked rigor in its implementation
b)
There was bureaucratic delay in sanctioning
programs under SSA
c) The
allocation of grants for training of teachers were not sufficient
3. Rastriya Madhyamic Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
Since universalization of elementary education
has become a Constitutional mandate, it is absolutely essential to push this
vision forward to move towards universalization of secondary education, which
has already been achieved in a large number of developed countries and several
developing countries. Midterm appraisal of 10th five-year plan
suggested for new Mission for Secondary Education on the lines of SSA. Central
Advisory Board of Education (CABE) suggested for Universalisation of Secondary
Education, termed as Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) was implemented
during 11th five year Plan (2007-2012) period.
Objectives of RMSA
1.
To achieve Universal Access and Quality
Secondary Education.
2.
To provide a secondary school within a
reasonable distance which should be 5 kilometer for secondary schools and 7 -10
kilometers for higher secondary schools.
3.
Ensure universal access of secondary education
by 2017 (GER of 100%),
4.
Universal retention by 2020
5.
Providing access to secondary education with
special references to economically weaker sections of the society, the
educationally backward, the girls and the disabled children residing in rural
areas and other marginalized categories like SC, ST, OBC and Educationally
Backward Minorities (EBM).
Achievements of RMSA
a)
Upgraded upper primary schools through
construction of classrooms, laboratories, computer rooms, library rooms,
separate toilets for girls and boys etc.
b) Strengthened
secondary schools through the following way.
a)
Construction of science lab, libraries
a.
In service training of teachers
b.
Leadership training of school head
c.
Curricular reforms
d.
Science and Mathematics education
e.
Computer aided education
f.
Co-curricular activities
g.
Teaching learning aids
c)
Removed the disparity among the different
social groups of people, through the special incentive for students belonging
to SC/ST/minority/other weaker sections of the society.
Drawbacks of RMSA
a)
There was a delay in receiving the School
grants under RMSA
b)
Duration of teacher training is not adequate
as per the requirement
c)
Administrative work entrusted to teachers
hampered with their teaching responsibilities
d)
Shortage of funds in RMSA causes to prolong
the developmental works of the schools
e)
Non availability of Guidelines regarding
utilization of school grants under RMSA
f)
Inconvenient time of holding In-service
teacher training programmes
g)
No proper monitoring of In-service teacher
training programmes
4. Rashtriya
Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA)
Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) is
a centrally sponsored scheme for reforming the state higher education system
was initiated in 2013. RUSA aims to usher transformative reforms in the State
Higher Education System by creating a facilitating institutional structure for
planning and monitoring at the state level, promoting autonomy in State
Universities and improving governance in institutions. There are 3064 state
universities and about 8500 colleges that are covered under RUSA. The funding
is provided in the (Center:State) ratio of 90:10 for Special Category States
like North-Eastern States, Sikkim, J&K, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand
and 65:35 for Other States and UTs. Funding will be available to private government-aided
institutions also, subject to their meeting certain preconditions, for
permitted activities based on pre-determined norms and parameters.
Objectives of RUSA
The key objectives of RUSA are to improve
access, equity and quality in higher education through planned development of
higher education at the state level. Such planning will include creating new
academic institutions, expanding and upgrading the existing ones, developing
institutions that are self-reliant in terms of quality education, professionally
managed, and characterized by greater inclination towards research and provide
students with education that is relevant to them as well the nation as a whole.
Improving the overall quality of existing
state higher educational institutions by ensuring conformity to prescribed
norms and standards and adoption of accreditation as a mandatory quality
assurance framework. Correct regional imbalances in access to higher education
through high quality institutions in rural and semi urban areas as well as
creating opportunities for students from rural areas to get access to better
quality institutions.
Setting
up of higher education institutions in unserved and underserved areas.
Improve equity in higher education by providing adequate opportunities
to socially deprived communities; promote inclusion of women, minorities, SC/ST
and OBCs as well as differently abled persons.
Ensure adequate availability of quality faculty in all higher
educational institutions and ensure capacity building at all levels.
Create
an enabling atmosphere in higher educational institutions to devote themselves
to research and innovation.
Integrate skill developments efforts of the government with the
conventional higher education system through optimum interventions.
Achievements of RUSA
During the 12th Plan period, many new universities were created by
converting autonomous
colleges/colleges
in a cluster to State universities under RUSA scheme.
Infrastructure grants were given many state universities and 3,500
colleges to upgrade and fill critical gaps in infrastructure especially libraries,
laboratories etc.
Drawbacks of RUSA
A.
There is delay in sanctioning funds for the
infrastructural development of the institution
B.
Many of the state governments are unwilling to
contribute their share to the RUSA fund
C.
Construction work under RUSA scheme is
undertaken by government agencies leading to corruption and mismanagement.
5. University Grants Commission (UGC)
Dr. S Radhakrishnan commission recommended the
University Grants Commission. Shri Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (the then Minister
of Education, Natural Resources and Scientific Research) formally inaugurated the
University Grants Commission (UGC), on 28th December 1953. The UGC,
however, was formally established only in November 1956 as a statutory body of
the Government of India through an Act of Parliament for the coordination,
determination and maintenance of standards of university education in India.
Aims, objectives, function and role of UGC
A.
Enquire into the financial needs of the
universities.
B.
Advice any authority, if such advice is asked
for on the establishment of a new university or on proposals connected with the
expansion of the activities of any university.
C.
Promote and coordinate university education.
D.
Determine and maintain standards of teaching,
examination and research in universities.
E.
Frame regulations on minimum standards of
education.
F.
Monitor developments in the field of
collegiate and university education;
G.
Allocate and disburse grants to the
universities and colleges.
H.
Serve as a vital link between the Union and
State governments and institutions of higher learning.
I.
Advise the Central and State governments on
the measures necessary for the improvement of university education.
6. National
Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC)
NAAC was established in 1994 with its
headquarters in Bangalore, in pursuance of the National Policy on Education
(1986) and the Programme of Action (POA), 1992.
Vision
To make quality, the defining element of higher education in India
through a combination of self and external quality evaluations, promotion and
sustenance initiatives.
Mission
A.
To arrange for periodic assessment and
accreditation of institutions of higher education or units thereof, or specific
academic programmes or projects;
B.
To stimulate the academic environment for
promotion of quality of teaching-learning and research in higher education
institutions;
C.
To encourage self-evaluation, accountability,
autonomy and innovation in higher education;
D.
To undertake quality-related research studies,
consultancy and training programmes, and
E.
To collaborate with other stakeholders of
higher education for quality evaluation, promotion and sustenance.
Functions of NAAC
The primary function of NAAC is to assess and
accredit institutions of higher learning with the objective of continuous
improvement in the quality of education. Assessment is a performance evaluation
of an institution. It is accomplished through a process based on self- study
and peer review using a well-defined criterion. Accreditation refers to the
certification given by NAAC, which is valid for a period of 5 years. The
process of assessment is in accordance with internationally accepted
practice, modified to suit the Indian context.
Grading Criteria of NAAC
NAAC has identified a set of seven criteria to
serve as the basis of its assessment procedures. They are as follows:
A. Curricular Aspects
B.
Teaching-learning & Evaluation
C.
Research, Innovations & Extension
D.
Infrastructure & Learning Resources
E.
Student Support & Progression
F.
Governance, Leadership & Management
G.Institutional Values &
Best Practice
Importance
of Accreditation In relation to the community, as a social
engineer, teacher is responsible for preparing and applying the blue
print for the development of the society. A teacher in modern India is engaged
in the building of the future of the country. The standard of a society depends
on the standard of its teachers. Teacher is the energetic and thought-provoking
engineer of the present era, who moulds the future generation with his amiable
personality and good techniques of teaching. Mudhaliar Commission remarked that
'the reputation of a school and its influence on the life of the community
invariably depends on the kind of teachers working in it'. So, a teacher must
consider his physical well-being, knowledge, skills and leisure as
opportunities for performing the highest good for the interest of the society.
Kothari commission reports that the destiny of India is being shaped in her
classrooms. Teachers are moulders of the future citizens. So the competency of
the teacher matters more.
Helps
the institution to know its strengths, weaknesses and opportunities
through an informed review process.
A.
To identify internal areas of planning
and resource allocation.
B.
Initiates institutions into innovative
and modern methods of pedagogy. Gives institutions a new sense of direction
and identity.
C.
Provides society with reliable information on
the quality of education offered.
D.
Employers have access to information on the
quality of education offered to potential recruits.
E.
Promotes intra and inter-institutional
interactions.
7. National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
The National Council for Teacher Education was
established in 1973 an advisory body for the Central and State Governments on
all matters pertaining to teacher education, with its Secretariat in the
Department of Teacher Education of the National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT).
The National Council for Teacher Education as
a statutory body came into existence in pursuance of the National Council for
Teacher Education Act, 1993 (No. 73 of 1993) on the 17th August
1995.
Objectives of NCTE
A.
Planned and coordinated development of the
teacher education system throughout the country
B.
The regulation and proper maintenance of norms
and standards in the teacher education system and for matters connected
therewith.
Functions of NCTE
1. Planning,
programming, advising, and formulations of norms for different teacher
education courses.
2.
To undertake surveys and studies relating to
various aspects of teacher education and publish the results.
3.
To make recommendations to the Central and
State Governments, Universities, and recognized institutions in the matter of
preparation of suitable plans and programs in the field of teacher education.
4.
To co-ordinate and monitor teacher education
and its development in the country.
5.
To lay down guidelines in respect of minimum
qualifications for a person to be employed as a teacher in schools or in
recognized institutions.
6.
To lay down guidelines for compliance by
recognized institutions, for starting new courses for training and for
providing physical and instructional facilities, staffing pattern and staff
qualifications.
7.
To lay down standards in respect of
examinations leading to teacher education qualifications, criteria for
admission to such examinations and schemes of courses of training.
8.
To promote and conduct innovation and research
in various areas of teacher education and disseminate the results.
9.
To examine and review periodically the implementation
of the norms, guidelines and standards laid down by the Council, and to advise
the recognized institutions suitably.
10. To
evolve suitable performance appraisal systems, norms and mechanisms for
enforcing accountability on recognized institutions,
Structure of NCTE
National Council for Teacher Education had
established four Regional Committee at Jaipur, Bengaluru, Bhubaneswar and
Bhopal covering the territorial jurisdiction of the Northern, Southern, Eastern
(and North-Eastern) and Western Regions of the Country respectively
8. National University of Educational Planning and Administration
(NUEPA)
National University of Educational Planning
and Administration (NUEPA) (Earlier known as NIEPA - National Institute of
Educational Planning and Administration) established by the Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Government of India, is a premier organization dealing with
capacity building and research in planning and management of education not only
in India but also in South Asia. For enormous contribution made by it in the
field of education, it was awarded with the status of deemed to be university
in August 2006. Thus, university is now fully authorized to conduct its own
examinations and give degrees.
9.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is
an apex resource organization set up by the Government of India in 1961, with
headquarters at New Delhi, to assist and advise the Central and State
Governments on academic matters related to school education.
Functions of NCERT
The NCERT undertakes the following programmes and activities:
A.
Research: Being
an apex national body for research in school education, the NCERT performs the
important functions of conducting and supporting research and offering
training in educational research methodology. Besides conducting in-house
research, the NCERT supports research programmes of other
institutions/organizations by providing financial assistance and academic
guidance.
B.
Development: Developmental
activities in school education constitute an important function of the NCERT.
The major developmental activities include, development and renewal of
curricula and instructional materials for various levels of school education
and making them relevant to changing needs of children and society.
C.
Training: Another
important dimension of NCERT's activities is the pre-service and in-service
training of teachers at various levels i.e., pre-primary, elementary,
secondary and higher secondary, and also in such areas as vocational education,
educational technology, guidance and counselling and special education.
D.
Extension: The
NCERT has comprehensive extension programmes. Conferences, seminars, workshops
and competitions are organized as a part of the extension activities.
Several programmes are organized in rural and backward areas in order to reach
out to the functionaries in these areas where special
problems
exist and where special efforts are needed. Special programmes are organized for
the education of the disadvantaged sections of the society.
E.
Publication and Dissemination: The
NCERT publishes textbooks for different school subjects for classes I to
XII. It also brings out workbooks, teachers' guides, supplementary readers,
research reports, etc. In addition, it publishes instructional materials for
the use of teacher educators, teacher trainees and in-service teachers.
For dissemination of educational information, the NCERT publishes six
journals: The Primary Teacher is published both in English and Hindi and
aims at giving meaningful and relevant educational inputs to primary school
teachers for direct use in the classroom; School
Science serves as an open forum for discussion on
various aspects of science education; Journal of Indian Education provides
a forum for encouraging original and critical thinking in education through
discussion on current educational issues; Indian Educational Review
contains research articles and provides a forum for researchers in education;
and Bharatiya Adhunik Shiksha, published in Hindi, provides a forum for
encouraging critical thinking in education on contemporary issues and for
dissemination of educational problems and practices.
10.
State Council of Education Research and
Training (SCERT)
The main function of this Council is to bring
qualitative improvement in the field of school education. Functions
1.
Organizes in-service training programmes for
teachers, administrators and teacher educators.
2.
Implements new educational techniques and
methodologies.
3.
Co-ordinates with District Institutes of
Education and Training (DIETs) and imparts guidance.
4.
Co-ordinates with various State councils of
Education, Regional College of Education, NCERT, NIEPA, etc. and searches out
educational problems and their remedies.
5.
Develops Teaching Learning Material (TLM) for
various training programmes.
6.
Organizes training programmes and workshops
for teachers for the improvement of educational evaluation.
7.
Prepares question papers for school examination
of various classes. Popularizes computer literacy in schools.
8.
Creates awareness among children and
instructors of non-formal centers run by NGOs.
11.
District Institute of Education and
Training (DIET)
District
Institute of Education and Training (DIET) was established across the nation as
per the recommendation of the National Policy on Education (NPE 1986) and
Programme of action (POA 1992) in order to strengthen the two dimensions of
teacher education namely, the pre-service and in-service education.
Structure of DIET
Each DIET comprises the following seven academic branches.
Pre-service Teacher Education Branch (PSTE)
Work Experience Branch (WE)
District Resource Unit (DRU)
In-service Programmes, Field interaction and Innovation Co-ordination
Branch (IFIC)
Curriculum, Material Development and Evaluation Branch (CMDE)
Educational Technology Branch (ET)
Planning and Management Branch (P & M)
Functions of DIETs
A
DIET has three main functions; Training (Pre service and In-service), Resource
support and undertaking Action Researches are the three major functions of the
DIET. The other functions are;
a)
Offering in-service and pre-service education
b)
Developing district specific academic
curricular materials
c)
Providing resource support to SSA training
programmes
d)
Providing resource support to alternative
schooling (AIE / EGS)
e)
Encouraging innovation and experiments in the
field of education
f)
Initiating collaborative Action Researches and
district level Research Projects to address the quality concerns
g)
Improving the quality of Laboratory Schools by
adopting and providing academic interventions
h)
Sustaining the quality of elementary education
in the district level by organizing district specific programmes under
centrally sponsored plans
12.
The Kerala Education Rules (KER) 1959
It came into force in June 1, 1959 framed
under the provisions of the Kerala Education Act, 1958. For governing the aided
schools, there were separate regulations in the Kerala Education Rules (1959).
These deal with admission, transfer and removal pupils from the schools,
organization of instruction of pupils, inspection of their progress, text
books, time table, scheme of work, methods of teaching, medium of instruction,
co-curricular activities, medical inspection, properties of aided schools, and
conditions of service of aided school teachers.
13.
The Kerala Service Rules (KSR) 1959
It came into force from November 1, 1959 and is applicable to all
officers who entered the service of Kerala state on or after November 1, 1956.
KSR has three parts;
Part
I: Rules relating to the general conditions of service, pay fixation, leave,
joining time, Foreign Service, etc.
Part
II: Rules relating to Travelling Allowances; and Part III: Pension Rules.
These rules also apply to all teaching and
non-teaching staff of the educational institution of the State government as
well as the aided institutions.
14.
Pre-service Teacher Education
Pre-service education refers to the training
required for an individual in order to enter into the teaching profession.
Types/levels
of Pre-service Teacher Education
a)
Pre-primary School Teacher Education
b)
Elementary School Teacher Education
c)
Secondary School Teacher Education
d)
Senior Secondary School Teacher Education
(Academic and Vocational Stream)
e)
Teacher Education for Physical Education
f)
Teacher Education for Distance Education and
Open learning systems.
Aims and objectives of Pre-service Teacher
Education Teacher education should equip the trainee with:
1.
Professional knowledge and attitudes,
interests, values, skills and philosophy related to teaching profession
2.
Skills of self-directed learning through
projects, individual assignments, etc.
3.
Adequate knowledge of the subject- matter
4.
Appropriate pedagogic skills
5.
Adequate understanding of child psychology
6.
Proper attitudes towards teaching
7.
Research outlook and the desire to experiment
and innovate
15. In-Service
Teacher Education
The term 'in-service teacher education
programme' connotes any programme provided to teachers already working, with
the explicit purpose of updating and renewing their knowledge, technical
skills, etc., for maintaining and enhancing their efficiency.
Need and significance of In-service programmes
Teaching, being a creative and individualistic endeavor, requires
periodic rejuvenation of teachers' attributes and upgrading of their technical
know-hows. Even a school teacher who has been 'an outstanding B.Ed. student'
who begins his teaching career with great enthusiasm, equipped with an initial
amount of technical know-how and the positive feedback received while 'under
training', needs improvement. Every teacher can perceive his own diminishing
'impact' on students. In-service education can be one way of maintaining them
at least at the minimum level of efficiency.
In-service education plays a crucial role in teacher development. The
National Policy on Education, stipulated that "teacher education is a
continuous process and its pre-service and in-service components are
inseparable." UNESCO also stresses the importance of in-service education
and observes "in-service training is on the whole as effective as pre-service
training, if not more so in its effect on quality". Professional
development of a teacher begins with pre- service and gets renewed through
in-service programmes. It does not mean that there is a simple linearity
between the two. In-service courses are offered to teachers to upgrade
knowledge and pedagogical skills. They are organized to provide them training
and acquaint them with emerging trends and new policy issues.
Rabindranath
Tagore has said, "A lamp can never light another lamp unless it continues
to burn in its own flame." This aspect of developing skills and attitudes
for lifelong learning need to be reinforced through In-service programmes. It
should also try to develop creative tensions. One of the key occupations of
in-service programme should be to make teachers reflective learners and to
sensitize them towards "deeper mission of schooling", promoting
curiosity, growth of imagination, and refinement of sensibilities. In-service
teacher education must develop a symbiotic relationship between action research
and classroom practices. And above all it must develop teachers as continuous
learners and co-learners. "The capacity to learn is the capacity to alter
what one is and has been. It places the present at risk"
Objectives of the In-service programme
A.
To foster the desire for life-long
learning and to empower teachers 'learning to learn' and 'learning to be'.
B.
To fulfill the gaps of the pre-service
education, remove its inadequacies and make it more realistic.
C.
To enable the teachers to meet the
requirements of changing educational and social contexts and concerns.
D.
To remove the outdated mentality of
teachers in content and pedagogy, transactional skills and evaluation
techniques.
E.
To acquaint them with the new
international experiments in education and absorb their findings in the system
in case they are found to be useful.
F.
To make them aware of new developments in
the areas they teach and information they impart to their students.
G.
To sensitize teachers with the
educational problems of the neglected sectors.
H.
To equip the alternative teachers with
the job specific skills and competencies.
I.
To increase the level of motivation of
teachers, to develop self-confidence, to promote the spirit of inquiry and help
them to be committed and reflective teachers.
Different
types of In-service programme
In-service programmes are also offered to prepare teachers for new
roles. It can be effected through attachment, study visits, exchange
programmes. It can be offered through long or short-term orientation or
enrichment programmes. In-service courses are:
a)
Refresher courses
b)
Summer courses
c)
Orientation programmes
d)
Correspondence courses
e) Workshops, seminars, symposia,
conferences etc.
Training
strategies range from lecture cum discussion to project work, library work,
group interaction and field visits. In-service education and training programme
also uses transactional strategies like case study method, brain storming
sessions, panel discussions, seminars, symposia, and small group techniques.
The transactional model of in -service education can be classified into three.
They are face-to-face model, cascade model and media based open distance model.
Institutions/Agencies
of In-service programme
At present, many agencies are involved in
in-service education of the teachers. UGC, NIEPA, NCERT, SCERTs, DIETs, IASEs,
(Institute for Advanced Studies in Education), CTEs (Council for Teacher
Education), NGOs, University Departments of Education, Academic Staff Colleges,
etc. are some of these agencies. For conducting programmes in education,
cooperation should be sought from the NGOs, retired teachers, teacher educators
and officials of various departments.
16.
Role of Teachers in Indian society
In the Indian tradition teachers have always been accorded a very high
position in the society. Teaching is considered as the noblest profession and
as a human enterprise undertaken in regard to other human beings. John Adams
describes teachers as the makers of humanity. They are social engineers and
engaged in the process of nation building.
Of all different factors, which influence the
quality of education and its contribution to national development, the quality
and character of teachers are undoubtedly the most significant. The modern
teacher is entrusted with the two-fold duty; one concerning the students, and
the other concerning the society.
Duty
of the teacher towards the students:
a)
Character development of students
b)
Effective teaching and learning
c)
Effective classroom management
d)
Evaluation and reporting pupil performance
e)
Curriculum development and implementation
f)
Value inculcation, etc.
In relation to the community, as a social engineer, teacher is
responsible for preparing and applying the blue print for the development of
the society. A teacher in modern India is engaged in the building of the future
of the country. The standard of a society depends on the standard of its
teachers. Teacher is the energetic and thought-provoking engineer of the present
era, who moulds the future generation with his amiable personality and good
techniques of teaching. Mudhaliar Commission remarked that 'the reputation of a
school and its influence on the life of the community invariably depends on the
kind of teachers working in it'. So, a teacher must consider his physical
well-being, knowledge, skills and leisure as opportunities for performing the
highest good for the interest of the society. Kothari commission reports that
the destiny of India is being shaped in her classrooms. Teachers are moulders
of the future citizens. So the competency of the teacher matters more.
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