EDU 203: assessment and Evaluation

 

Module 1: Assessment and Evaluation

 

1.1   Conceptual overview of Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment is defined as a process of appraising something, whereas evaluation focuses on making a judgment about values, numbers or performance of someone or something. Assessment is a process of collecting, reviewing and using data, for the purpose of improvement in the current performance.

Assessment is the process of objectively understanding the state or condition of a thing, by observation and measurement. Evaluation is the process of observing and measuring a thing for the purpose of judging it and of determining its “value,” either by comparison to similar things, or to a standard. Evaluation is described as an act of passing judgement on the basis of set of standards.

Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation

Measurement refers to observations that can be expressed quantitatively. It answers the question “HowMuch?” Evaluation is concerned with “What Value” instead of just focusing on “How Much”? While evaluation involves making judgments, assessment is concerned with correcting the deficiencies in one’s performance. On the otherhand, Assessment is the process of integration of all the abilities, interests, attitudes or reactions of a learner. Assessment results in knowing the strengths and weaknesses of a learner.

Thus, assessment seems to be a more comprehensive term than measurement and evaluation.

Definition of Assessment

Assessment is defined as a methodical way of acquiring, reviewing and using information about someone or something, so as to make improvement where necessary. The term is interpreted in a variety of ways, i.e. educational, psychological, financial, taxation, human resource and so on.

In general, assessment is an ongoing interactive process, in which two parties (assessor and assessee) are involved. The assessor is someone who assesses the performance based on the defined standards, while assessee is someone who is being assessed. The process aims at determining the effectiveness of the overall performance of the assessee and the areas of improvement. The process involves, setting up goals, collecting information (qualitative and quantitative) and using the information for increasing quality.

Definition of Evaluation

The term ‘evaluation’ is derived from the word ‘value’ which refers to‘ usefulness of something’. Therefore, evaluation is an examination of something to measure its utility.

Evaluationisasystematicandobjectiveprocessofmeasuringorobserving someone or something, with an aim of drawing conclusions, using criteria, usually governed by set standards or by making a comparison. It gauges the performance of a person, completed project, process or product, to determine its worth or significance.

Characteristics of Evaluation

·        Evaluation is a comprehensive process: Evaluation is a global process it assess all aspects of child's development. There are different techniques which, are used by the teachers to evaluate the performance of the child.

·        Evaluation is a continuous process: Evaluation is a continuous process as education. It is not examination but examination is a part of evaluation process. There is no fixed time limit for the completion of evaluation work. But it is a continuous process.

·        Evaluation will be humane in nature. It will help students grow as social beings and thus save them from unnecessary pain, anxiety, harassment and humiliation.

·        Evaluation will be the responsibility of teacher who teaches the student and is responsible for developing the requisite healthy attributes in them

·        Evaluation will be consistent with its purpose and will provide are liable and valid measure of students' performance.

·        Evaluation will reflect the outcomes of each learning intervention and would provide all the students the same opportunity to display their individual potential.

·        Evaluation will be built in with the teaching-learning process and thus will be carried out through the entire period of education.

What is the difference between Assessment and Evaluation?

Assessment and evaluation are completely different.

·        Assessment focuses on learning, teaching and outcomes. It provides information for improving learning and teaching. Assessment is an interactive process between students and faculty that informs faculty how well their students are learning what they are teaching. The information is used by faculty to make changes in the learning environment, and is shared with students to assist them in improving their learning and study habits. This information is learner-centered, course based and not graded.

·        Evaluation focuses on grades and may reflect classroom components other than course content and mastery level. These could include discussion, cooperation, attendance and verbal ability.

 

Basis of comparison	Assessment	Evaluation
Nature	Diagnostic	Judgemental
What it does?	Provides feedback on performance and areas of Improvement	Determines the extent to which objectives are achieved
Timing and Purpose	Formative	Summative
Focus of measurement	Process oriented	Product oriented
Feedback	Based on observations and negative & positive points	Based on the level of quality as per set standard
Type	Flexible	Fixed
Relationship between parties	Reflective	Prescriptive
Criteria	Set by both parties jointly	Set by the evaluator
Measurement standards	Absolute- strive for ideal Outcomes	Comparative- divide better from worse

Key differences between Assessment and Evaluation

The significant differences between assessment and evaluation are discussed in the points given below

·        The process of collecting, reviewing and using data, for the purpose of improvement in the current performance, is called assessment. A process of passing judgment, on the basis of defined criteria and evidence is called evaluation.

·        Assessment is diagnostic in nature as it tends to identify areas of improvement. On the other hand, evaluation is judgemental, because it aims at providing an overall grade.

·        The assessment provides feedback on performance and ways to enhance performance in future. As against this, evaluation ascertains whether the standards are met or not.

·        The purpose of assessment is formative, i.e. to increase quality whereas evaluation is all about judging quality, therefore the purpose is summative.

·        Assessment is concerned with process, while evaluation focuses on product.

·        In an assessment, the feedback is based on observation and positive & negative points. In contrast to evaluation, in which the feedback relies on the level of quality as per set standard.

·        In an assessment, the relationship between assess or and assessee is reflective, i.e. the criteria are defined internally. On the contrary, the evaluator and evaluatee share a prescriptive relationship, where in the standards are imposed externally.

·        The criteria for assessment are set by both the parties jointly. As opposed to evaluation, where in the criteria are set by the evaluator.

·        The measurement standards for assessment are absolute, which seeks to achieve the quintessential outcome. As against this, standards of measurement for evaluation are comparative, that makes a distinction between better and worse.

Types of Evaluation

A.    Oral, Written and Performance Evaluation

Evaluation may be classified on the basis of the sequence in which different procedures are used. Different types of evaluation procedures involve different ways and techniques.

(1)  Written Evaluation

It is otherwise known as paper pencil tests. These are commonly used in school. Where, answers are to be written as per the instruction of question.

Types of Written Evaluation

a)     Written Examinations

Written mode of examination conducted in schools with the purpose of measuring achievement of the students

Types include- Multiple Choice, True or false, Matching, Completion of Fill in the blanks, Essays- Short notes and Long Essays.

b)    Reviews

One type of written evaluation that most people are familiar with is the review. Reviewers will attend performances, events, basing their evaluations on their observations. Reviewers typically use a particular set of criteria they establish for themselves.

c)     Project:

Projects are now becoming a major aspects of evaluation. Report of project submitted by the students are one of the major aspects in school as well as in higher education

d)    Portfolio writing

Portfolios are the combination of the evidences, Reports and reflections of work done during an academic period. It helps the students to evaluate himself and also helps the teacher to evaluate the performance of the students.

e)     Assignments and Seminar report

Assignment given to students is a technique of written evaluation, teacher can evaluate the writing skill as well as the content knowledge through this process.

Advantages of written evaluation

Students have time to think

·        Evaluation based on a written document.

·        Possible for re evaluation

·        Student can use the product for further references

·        Improve the writing skill

·        Reduces the fear of evaluation as it not a face to face and spontaneous mode of evaluation in most of the cases

·        Students will get more time to think and answer

·        Reference is possible in most of the written evaluation

Limitations of written evaluation

·        Evaluation requires time

·        It is difficult to construct a good written test

·        Answers have to be short (in number of words) to facilitate correction

 

(2)  Oral Evaluation

These types of examination or tests are conducted for supplementing to written examination, e.g.: Test of reading ability, pronunciation, interview etc. where there is nothing to write.

One of the most important characteristics of most forms of oral assessment is that follow-up questions can be used to determine the limits of what the student knows. Unlike a written exam, assessors can ask the student to elaborate on an answer and can use a series of carefully prepared questions or probes until they have reached the limit of what the student knows.

Oral assessment can promote learning in several ways:

·        It allows probing of the students' knowledge

·        Students may prepare particularly thoroughly in order to avoid seeming foolish in front of their examiner or their peers

·        Some students seem reluctant to voice ideas that they do not 'own', that is, they want to ensure that they have a genuine understanding of what they are saying.

·        Some students may be better able to express themselves orally than in writing

·        Some students may have particular difficulties with writing owing to dyslexia, impaired vision or other factors.

·        Other students may have a particular wish or need to develop their ability to communicate

Written examinations are based on an assumption that the written word is unambiguous and readily understood, in the way it was intended, by all students. This may often not be the case. Oral assessment provides the opportunity to ensure that each student understands the questions being asked.

Disadvantages

·        Undue anxiety: Some anxiety can be beneficial in oral assessment, but anxiety that interferes with a student's performance will not give a true indication of his or her ability.

·        Hearing or speech difficulties: Students with hearing or speech impairments may also require some adjustment to the assessment process.

·        Time: Oral assessment can be time-consuming, which becomes particularly problematic with larger classes. On the other hand, many forms of oral assessment can be quite short, and marking can occur very quickly at the end of the assessment.

·        Lack of anonymity: Examiners inevitably know whom they are examining

·        Bias: Concerns are sometimes expressed that examiners may be influenced by students' dress, gender, ethnicity or educational background.

(3)  Practical Examination/ performance evaluation:

These tests are necessary to test experimental and manipulative skills of learner particularly in subjects like Science, Technology, Agriculture, Craft and Music.

Example: Bhattia's Battery of Performance Test of Intelligence

In performance evaluation, learners must perform tasks as authentic as possible, the outcome of which must be rated by qualified judges. Performance assessments share three common features:

1)     students construct rather than select a response,

2)     students are observed completing tasks that resemble those in the real world, and

3)     students reveal their learning and thinking processes along with their answers.

A key feature of performance assessments is that students are active participants. Rather than choosing from presented options, as in traditional multiple-choice tests, students are responsible for creating or constructing their responses.

Features:

1.     Learners make a constructed response.

2.     They engage in higher-order thinking, with open-ended tasks.

3.     Tasks are meaningful, engaging, and authentic.

4.     Tasks call for the integration of language skills.

5.     Both process and product are assessed.

Advantages

Performance assessment has several advantages. Students are assessed in real and complex situations, considering both process and product. In addition, the gap between testing and instruction is reduced.

Disadvantages

The performance-based assessment relies on the teacher's observations or judgments, increasing subjectivity over other measurement strategies.

B.  Formative and Summative Evaluation Formative Evaluation

The term formative denotes the on-going or systematic assessment of student achievement while the course or instructional programme is in progress. Formative evaluation is concerned with judgements made during the design and development of a programme which is directed towards modifying, forming or improving the programme before it is completed.

While teaching, the content to be taught is presented in the form of small teaching points. At the end of each of such item students have to be evaluated with respect to the anticipated objectives. Thus difficulties if any should be a diagnosed and remediated. This procedure will ensure mastery of the subjects in terms of realization of educational objectives.

According to N. E. Gronlund "formative evaluation is used to monitor learning progress during instruction and to provide continuous feedback to both pupil and teacher concerning learning a process and failures. Feedback to pupils reinforces successful learning and identifies the learning errors that need correction. Feedback to the teacher provides information for modifying instruction and prescribing group and individual remedial work." The instructional process thus becomes dynamic and effective through continuous formative evaluation.

In Summary, Assessments FOR learning happens while learning is still underway.

These are assessments that:

·        are conducted throughout teaching and

·        learning to diagnose student needs

·        plan the next steps in instruction

·        provide students with feedback they can use to improve the quality of their work

·        help students see and feel how they are in control of their journey to success

·        Refers to what happens on a daily basis in the classroom

·        Provides teachers with information about specific next instructional steps for students

Formative Assessment Strategies

·        Conference

·        Cooperative Learning Activities

·        Demonstrations

·        Exit Card

·        Graphic Organizers

·        "I Learned” Statements

·        Interviews

·        Journal Entry

·        KWLs

·        Learning Logs

·        Oral Attitude Surveys

·        Oral Presentations

·        Peer Evaluations

·        Problem Solving Activities

·        Products

·        Questioning

·        Quiz

·        Response Groups

·        Self-Evaluation

Summative Evaluation

As the term indicates summative evaluation is done at the end of something attempted or it is the overall assessment or decision with the programme. According to A J Nikto "summative evaluation describes judgements about the merits of an already completed programme, procedure or product." It may be conducted at the end of a unit, after it is successfully completed as evidenced by formative evaluation. Or it may be done at the end of a term and cover a number of learning units. Annual examination also may be said to be summative in nature. It is designed to determine the extent to which the instructional objectives have been achieved and is used primarily for assigning course grades or certifying pupil mastery of the intended learning outcomes.

The result of summative evaluation will give a general picture of the level of attainment. This will help to reinforce the teachers and students and will make instruction more effective and helps to organize the total system of education more effectively. In addition to these functions it may aim at placement, prediction etc. of the learners.

Though formative and summative evaluation differs in their nature and function both may be considered as complementary to each other.

Summative Assessment Strategies

·        Unit Test/ Annual exams

·        Performance Task

·        Project/ Product/ Exhibit

·        Demonstration

·        Portfolio Review

 

Formative evaluation	Summative evaluation
Process oriented	Product oriented
Internal in nature	Can be Internal or external in nature
Aims       at       immediate       feedback, diagnosis and remediation	Aims at overall assessment, grading, classification,     placement,    selection, setting up of norms etc.
Methods used are daily assignments, observations etc	Methods used are tests, projects etc
Can be conducted daily	Weekly, termly etc
Content focus is detailed and narrow scope	lt is general and broad scope
Profiles and record of achievements are regularly used	Limits the use of profiles and record of achievements

C.  Objective based and Competency based Evaluation Objective based evaluation

Here the evaluation is based on specific instructional objectives. An objective is the statement of a result to be achieved. Each general objective can be broken down into more precise statements, which then determine the activities, people and means necessary for the success of the program. Objectives dictate the line to be followed and serve as markers by which the results and their impact can be assessed. Only if objectives are stated in a strict and unambiguous manner can a value judgement be made about the running of a programme.

 

 

 

 

In objective based evaluation the teacher evaluates the realization of a specific objective. He selects one specific objective he wants to test. Then he selects the appropriate content to test those objectives and then write questions from that particular content.

Objective Based Instruction

·        In an objective based instruction, the instruction is based on pre- determined objectives.

·        An objective is the statement of a result to be achieved. In this instruction the teacher evaluates the realization of a specific objective

·        In objective based instruction teaching and learning should be objective centred.

·        Under objective based instruction the process of instruction helps to achieve certain immediate goals which lead the learner nearer to the ultimate goal.

·        Objectives provide the foundation for meaningful and effective teaching. Objectives guide the selection of what to teach and how to teach.

·        A teacher who has clearly defined the objective is sure about his destination. He knows how to guide his students to reach the destination. Thus objectives makes teaching goal- oriented and purposeful. This is called objective based approach to instruction.

·        Objective based instruction is a triangular inter relation between objectives, learning experiences and evaluation.

Stages of objective based instruction

1.     Identification of objectives to be achieved.

2.     Identification of specifications based on objectives and the topic.

3.     Selection of learning experience

4.     Detailed Instruction.

5.     Evaluation Based on the objectives

6.     Redefining the objectives if needed.

Competency based evaluation

Competencies consist of a description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours required for effective performance of a real world task or activity.

Competency based evaluation focuses on outcomes of learning. CBE addresses what the learners are expected to do rather than on what they are expected to learn about.

These types of evaluation typically constructed to check the proficiency of an individual in performing a skill in different situations. For e.g. testing for competency in basic skills of communication and computation. Competency tests are also used as a basis for promotion at the lower grade levels. Competency-based assessment is not a set of examinations; it is the basis for certification of competency and it is carried out as a process in order to collect evidence about the performance and knowledge of a person with respect to a competency standard.

·        In competency based instruction the instructional objectives are set in terms of certain competencies which the learner should realize.

·        In competency based instruction, the instruction is based on competencies of the child. Competency is an element of power to be generated through education. Competency is the ability to cop-up problems associated with the particular area.

·        Competency Based Education and Training is an approach to teaching and learning more often used in learning concrete skills than abstract learning

·        In competency based instruction every individual skil/learning outcome, known as a competency

·        Learners work on one competency at a time, which is likely a small component of a larger learning goal. The student is evaluated on the individual competency, and only once they have mastered it do they move on to others. After that, higher or more complex competencies are learned to a degree of mastery and isolated from other topics.

Stages of competency based instruction

1.     Identification of competencies to be achieved.

2.     Priority to select the essential competencies.

3.     Skills associated with the related competencies.

4.     Demonstrate the skill of competency.

5.     Training or practicing the skill.

6.     Detailed notes are provided.

7.     Evaluation in the skills.

8.     Evaluation of the competency.

D.  Criterion-referenced and Norm-referenced Evaluation The Criterion-referenced evaluation

Criterion-referenced tests and assessments are designed to measure student performance against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or learning standards- i.e. concise, written descriptions of what students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education.

A test is criterion- referenced when provision is made for translating the test score into a statement about the behaviour to be expected of a person with that score. The same test can be used in both ways. Evaluation done on the basis of selected criteria, indicating specific changes brought about in the learner is said to be criterion- referenced evaluation. Predetermined and well- defined specific goals or specific objectives act as the frame of reference or criterion. It aims at qualitative assessment and associated with the process of development for which education is provided. Here the individual is compared with some established criterion, rather than the individuals. The main function of criterion-referenced evaluation will be diagnosis of the loopholes in the developmental process; leading to remediation and perfection of the anticipated development. It is closely related to formative evaluation which attempts at mastery of the competencies to the maximum possible. It doesn't mean that summative evaluation cannot be criterion referenced. Whenever the evaluation is based on well-defined objectives and is done by searching for criteria it is criterion referenced.

Criterion-referenced, i.e., with reference to the criteria set by the teacher

·        Assessment based on pre-determined criteria.

·        Compares an individual's performance to the acceptable standard of performance for those tasks.

·        Requires completely specified objectives.

Asks: Can this person do that which has been specified in the objectives?

·        Results in yes-no decisions about competence.

It serves to identify on what extent the individual's performance has met in a given criterion. (ex. A level of 75% score in all the test items could be considered a satisfactory performance) It points out what a learner can do, not how he compares with others

It identifies weak and strong points in an individual's performance It tends to focus on sub skills, shorter, mastery learning It could be both diagnostic and prognostic in nature.

·        Based on a predetermined set of criteria.

For instance,

o   90% and up = A

o 80% to 89.99% = B

o 70% to 79.99% = C

o 60% to 69.99% = D

o   59.99% and below F

Merits

·        Sets minimum performance expectations.

·        Demonstrate what students can and cannot do in relation to important content-area standards (e.g, ILS).

Limitations

·        Sometimes it's hard to know just where to set boundary conditions.

·        Lack of comparison data with other students and/or schools

Norm-referenced evaluation

A norm-referenced test (NRT) is a type of test, assessment, or evaluation which yields an estimate of the position of the tested individual in a predefined population, with respect to the trait being measured. This estimate is derived from the analysis of test scores and possibly other relevant data from a sample drawn from the population. The term normative assessment refers to the process of comparing one test-taker to his or her peers.

Norm-referenced refers to standardized tests that are designed to compare and rank test takers in relation to one another. Norm-referenced tests report whether test takers performed better or worse than a hypothetical average student, which is determined by comparing scores against the performance

results of a statistically selected group of test takers, typically of the same age or grade level, who have already taken the exam.

When the attainment of an individual has to be compared with that of a group or comparison between different subgroups in a given group is required, we look for expected standards or norms and the evaluation is said to be norm- referenced evaluation. E.g. psychological variables like intelligence, aptitude, attitude etc. are measured by comparing the scores with predetermined group norms.

Gronlund states that norm-referenced tests are designed to rank the students in the order of achievement, so that decisions based on relative achievements (e.g., selection, grouping, grading) can be made with greater confidence. Here the achievement of an examinee is compared to that of a large group of examinees at the same grade level. This representative group is known as norm group. Norm-referenced interpretations might be based on a local, state, or national group, depending on the use to be made of the results. Norms can be given in the form of grades, scores etc. Norm referenced evaluation is more connected with summative evaluation, which looks for the final products of development rather than the process.

Many college entrance exams and nationally used school tests use norm referenced tests. The SAT, Graduate Record Examination (GRE), and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) compare individual student performance to the performance of a normative sample. Test-takers cannot fail a norm- referenced test, as each test-taker receives a score that compares the individual to others that have taken the test, usually given by a percentile.

It compares a student's performance with the performance of other students in the class

It uses the normal curve in distributing grades of students by placing them either above or below the mean.

The teacher's main concern is the variability of the score.

The more variable the score is the better because it can determine how individual differs from the other.

Uses percentiles and standard scores.

It tends to be of average difficulty.

·        Norm-referenced assessment is the process of evaluating (and grading) the learning of students by judging (and ranking) them against the performance of their peers.

·        Norm-referenced assessment is contrasted with criteria-referenced assessment.

·        The former tends to be relative to performance of others while the latter is based on performance against pre-set criteria.

·        According to the National Centre for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (1996) defines norm-referenced assessment as:

·        An assessment where student performance or performances are compared to a larger group. Usually the larger group or 'norm group' is a national sample representing a wide and diverse cross-section of students. Students, schools, districts, or even states are then compared or rank-ordered in relation to the norm group. The purpose of a norm- referenced assessment is usually to sort students and not to measure achievement toward some criterion of performance.

·        Based upon the assumption of a standard normal (Gaussian) distribution with n>30.

Employs the ‘z’ score:

·        A = top 10% (z> +1.28)

·        B = next 20% (+0.53 < z < +1.28)

·        C = central 40% (-0.53 <z< +0.53)

·        D = next 20% (-1.28< z< -0.53)

·        F = bottom 10% (z< -1.28)

Merits

·        Ensures a "spread" between top and bottom of the class for clear grade setting.

·        Shows student performance relative to group.

Limitations

·        In a group with great performance, some will be ensured an "F."

·        Top and bottom performances can sometimes be very close.

·        Dispenses with absolute criteria for performance.

·        Being above average does not necessarily imply "A" performance.

Criterion Vs Norm-referenced Testing

Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced evaluation refers only to the method of interpreting results. They can and should mutually complement. Which of these is more important is decided by the anticipated purpose. Both terms criterion-referenced and norm-referenced were originally coined by Robert Glaser. Unlike a criterion-reference test, a norm referenced test indicates whether the test taker did better or worse than other people who took the test For example, if the criterion is "Students should be able to correctly add two single-digit numbers," then reasonable test questions might look like "2+3 ?" or "9 +5 = ?" A criterion-referenced test would report the student's performance strictly according to whether or not the individual student correctly answered these questions. A norm-referenced test would report primarily whether this student correctly answered more questions compared to other students in the group.

Norm referenced Evaluation is a kind of evaluation procedure, in which the test result is to be interpreted in terms of an individual’s relative position in a group (purpose of the test) i.e., we can classify the persons who pass the test in to different group according to the performance of the test.

Tests that set goals for students based on the average student's performance are norm-referenced tests. Tests that set standards for students based on a set standard (e.g., 80 words spelled correctly) are criterion-referenced tests

Norm- referenced; i.e., with reference to the peer group

 

Norm- Referenced Test	Criterion-Referenced Test
·        Allows for a cooperative classroom atmosphere ·        No assumptions about form of distribution ·        Small-group statistics not a problem ·        Difficult to know just where to set criteria ·        Provide information on how the individual performed on some standard of objective ·        Allow users to interpret what an individual can do without considering the performance of others ·        Designed to measure the results of instruction ·        An individual’s performance on a specific behavioural or instructional objective ·        Emphasizes description of performance ·        To determine whether each student has achieved specific skills or concepts ·        To find out how much students know before instruction begins and after it has finished	·        Ensures           a           competitive classroom atmosphere ·        Assumes    a    standard    normal distribution ·        Small-group statistics a problem ·        Assume this class like all others ·        Provide information on how the performance of an individual compares with that of others. ·        Individual’s standing is compared with that of a known group ·        Percentile rank is obtained to determine the relative standing in a norm group ·        Emphasize the discrimination among individuals ·        To rank each student with respect to the achievement of others
·        Focus on delimited domains of learning task using relatively large number of items for each task	·        Cover lager domains of learning tasks using a few items for each task
·        Emphasize description leaning tasks that the pupil can and cannot perform	·        Emphasize              discrimination among     pupils     in     terms     of relative level of learning
·        Used     primarily     for    mastery testing	·        Used for every type of testing

E.  Process Evaluation and Product Evaluation Process evaluation

Process evaluations formatively assess the planning, design, development, and implementation of instructional learning and associated efforts, including attempts to adapt instruction based on individual differences. Process assessment focuses on the steps or procedures underlying a particular ability or task, i.e., the cognitive steps in performing a mathematical operation or the procedure involved in analyzing a blood sample. Because it provides more detailed information, process assessment is most useful when a student is learning a new skill and for providing formative feedback to assist in improving performance.

Process evaluation monitors the entire instructional process. It provides an ongoing check on the important activities involved and proves feedback regarding (a) the extent to which the planned activities are carried out and (b) whether adjustments or revisions of the plan are necessary and (c) the extent to which participants accept and carry out their roles.

Process evaluation methods include monitoring the procedural barriers and unanticipated defects, obtaining additional information for corrective programmatic changes and regularly interacting with and observing the activities of project participants. Process evaluation techniques include on-site observation, participant interviews, rating scales, questionnaires, records analysis, photographic records, case studies of participants, focus groups, self- reflection sessions with staff members etc.

Product evaluation

Product assessment means identifying and assessing the learning outcomes. It focuses on evaluating the result or outcome of a process. Product assessment is most appropriate for documenting proficiency or competency in a given skill, i.e., for summative purposes. In general, product assessments are easier to create than product assessments, requiring only a specification of the attributes of the final product.

The purpose of a product evaluation is to measure, interpret, and judge the learning outcomes by assessing their merit, worth and significance. Its main purpose is to ascertain the extent to which the needs of all the participants were met. A combination of techniques should be used to assess a comprehensive set of outcomes. Doing so helps cross-check the various

findings. A wide range of techniques are applicable in product evaluations, and includes logs and diaries of outcomes, interviews of beneficiaries and other stakeholders, case studies, hearings, focus groups, document/records retrieval and analysis, analysis of photographic records, achievement tests, rating scales, trend analysis etc.

1.2        Functions    of   assessment    –   assessment    for   learning   and assessment of learning

Gibbs (2003) states that assessment has 6 main functions:

1.     Capturing student time and attention

2.     Generating appropriate student learning activity

3.     Providing timely feedback which students pay attention to

4.     Helping students to internalise the discipline's standards and notions of equality

5.     Generating marks or grades which distinguish between students or enable pass/fail decisions to be made

6.     Providing evidence for other (outside the course) to enable them to judge the appropriateness of standards on the course.

Assessment of Learning and Assessment for Learning

Assessment of Learning is the process of assessing the learning outcomes acquired after the transaction of a unit. The proficiency of the learner and his level of excellence are evaluated here. This is just one phase of assessment. Assessment to ensure learning should be given prominence.

The 'assessment of learning' is defined as a process whereby someone attempts to describe and quantify the knowledge, attitudes or skills possessed by another. Teacher direction is paramount and the student has little involvement in the design or implementation of the assessment process in these circumstances.

·        Teacher designs learning

·        Teacher collects evidence

·        Teacher judges what has been learnt (and what has not been learnt)

There might be many interventions made by the teacher or classmates to ensure efficiency during the process of learning. This intervention during learning and feedback forms another phase of assessment. This is called Assessment for Learning. It is the process of seeking and interpreting evidence

for use by learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go and how best to get there. The 'assessment for learning' involves increased level of student autonomy, but not without teacher guidance and collaboration. It has to be carried out continuously for progress in learning and should be integrated with learning activities. Assessment for learning helps teachers gain insight into what students understand in order to plan and guide instruction, and provide helpful feedback to students.

Assessment for learning embeds assessment processes throughout the teaching and learning process to constantly adjust instructional strategy. While it can include test data, it also addresses other quantitative and even qualitative data, and even encompasses a great deal of anecdotal and descriptive data. Assessment for learning is also known as formative assessment. It helps both teachers and students.

Principles of assessment for learning

·        Learning to learn: helps students to become more aware of not only what they are learning, but how they are learning it.

·        Identifying the learning need: helps to identify where a student is in terms of their learning, where they want to be and what next teaching and learning steps can help them to achieve their goals

·        Building students' assessment capability: helps to identify their own strengths and needs and develop the ability to monitor their own work

·        Engagement and motivation: promotes motivation by emphasizing progress and achievement

·        Content knowledge: knowledge of both curriculum and pedagogic content is essential for effective assessment for learning

·        Planning and communication: assessment for learning should be built into teachers' planning as part of everyday classroom practice.

·        Cumulative measurement of progress: assessment should be valid, fair and suited to the purpose.

·        Support for teaching and learning goals: assessment should emphasize teacher pupil and pupil-pupil interactions

·        Feedback: feedback based on assessment is one of the most powerful ingredients in teaching and learning.

There is also a process of correction which involves a critical self analysis of the concepts and awareness gathered through learning and internalizing the changes. This can be considered as self assessment. Thus, learning takes place

through self-assessment. This can be called Assessment as Learning. The learner becomes aware of how to learn more effectively (Learning to Learn) through this. Assessment for learning and assessment as learning should be intensely emphasised to make learning more effective.

The approach which gives importance to assessment process for making learning more effective must be adopted. While adopting a learning approach that ensures learning outcomes, we should also adopt a suitable assessment approach for it. Therefore, an 'Outcome Focussed Assessment Approach' should be adopted. Active participation of the learner should be ensured in the learning activities centred on learning outcomes. There should be awareness about learning outcomes among learners, teachers and parents alike. Clarity regarding the need for assessment, need to ensure learning outcomes, making it learner centred, to develop the ability to identify social problems, to encourage creative, critical and logical thinking are the characteristics of learning focused on learning outcomes.

 

 

1.3   Qualitative and Quantitative aspects of evaluation

Evaluation methods and the data they produce are grouped into two basic categories - quantitative and qualitative. In general, quantitative methods produce numbers while qualitative methods capture more descriptive data.

How are Quantitative and Qualitative data different?

At the most basic level, data are considered quantitative if they are numbers and qualitative if they are words. Qualitative data may also include photos, videos, audio recordings and other non-text data. Those who favour quantitative data claim that their data are hard, rigorous, credible and scientific. Those in the qualitatty8 camp counter that their data are sensitive, detailed, nuanced and contextual. Qualitative data best explain the why and how of your program, while quantitative data best explain the what, ho and when.

In general, evaluators agree that qualitative and quantitative data and methods have different strengths, weaknesses, and requirements that affect decisions about which methodologies are appropriate for which purposes.

Qualitative methods

Qualitative data collection methods result in descriptions of problems, behaviours or events, can provide narrative descriptions of people's thoughts and opinions about their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. These measures provide the "stories" that illustrate the nature of the problem addressed.

What are Qualitative Data?

·        Usually gathered by observations, interviews or focus groups

·        May also be gathered from written documents and through case studies

·        Less emphasis on counting numbers of people who think or behave in certain ways

·        emphasis on explaining why people think and behave in certain ways

·        Involves smaller numbers of respondents

·        Utilizes open-ended questionnaires or protocols

·        Best used to answer how and why questions

·        Not well suited to what, when and who questions

How do you collect Qualitative Data?

1.  Observations

·        Looking    at    what    is    happening    rather    than    directly    questioning participants

·        Used to better understand behaviours, their social context and meanings attached to them

·        Useful for certain populations - children, infants

·        Can identify unanticipated outcomes

2.  Interviews (in-depth, open-ended, individual)

·        Usually provide rich data, details, insights from programme stakeholders about their experiences, behaviours and opinions

·        Particularly useful for complex or sensitive subjects

·        Use open-ended questions

3.  Written Documents

·        Written    materials    and   documents    from   schools-    Cumulative    and Anecdotal records

·        Official publications and reports

·        Personal diaries

·        Letters, artistic works, photographs etc.

4.  Focus Groups

·        8-12 people selected by non-random method, share some characteristics or experience relevant to the evaluation, ideally do not know each other, respond to questions from group facilitator

·        Use group dynamics to generate data and insights

·        Useful for generating ideas and strategies, defining problems in project implementation, assist with interpreting quantitative findings

·        Open-ended questions or topics designed to stimulate discussion; topics usually broader than interview questions

The data for qualitative evaluation typically come from fieldwork. The evaluator spends time in the setting under study-a program, organization, or community where change efforts can be observed, people interviewed, and documents analyzed. The evaluator makes first-hand observations of activities and interactions, sometimes engaging personally in those activities as a "participant observer." The quality of qualitative data depends to a great extent on the methodological skill, sensitivity, and integrity of the evaluator. The voluminous raw data in these field notes are organized into readable narrative descriptions with major themes, categories, and illustrative case examples extracted through content analysis. Qualitative methods are often used in evaluations because they tell the program's story by capturing and communicating the participants' stories. Evaluation case studies have all the elements of a good story.

Advantages: Generally quantitative methods are easy to administer, can include relatively large number of questions, can yield large samples, are easier to summarize, and are more widely accepted as a form of evidence regarding programme effectiveness

Disadvantages: Data may not be as rich or as detailed as qualitative methods Survey/written questionnaires may be difficult for some participants, may not provide all the information needed for interpretations of data findings, and the large amounts of data may require more sophisticated analysis approaches.

Quantitative methods

Quantitative data collection methods consist of counts or frequencies, rates or percentages, or other statistics that document the actual existence or absence of problems, behaviours, or occurrences. This data can yield representative

and generalizable information. These methods are usually objective and require the use of standardized measures so that varying perspectives and experiences can fit into a limited number of predetermined response categories. These methods are usually easier to summarize and compare than qualitative methods.

What are Quantitative Data?

·        Pieces of information that can be counted mathematically

·        Usually gathered by surveys from large numbers of respondents selected randomly

·        Secondary data such as census data, government statistics, etc. often included in quantitative evaluations

·        Analyzed using statistical methods

·        Best used to answer what, when and who questions

·        Not well suited to how and why questions

How do you collect Quantitative Data?

1.  Surveys

·        Most common method

·        Self-administered or by someone else

·        Face-to-face, telephone, mail, web-based

2.  Questionnaires that ask close-ended questions such as pre- and post-tests

3.  Performance tests

4.  Clinical tests

5.  Secondary Data

·        Often used in conjunction with survey data

·        Includes    census     data,    knowledge/    attitude/     behaviour    studies, performance data, agency progress reports, etc.

Advantages: Qualitative data methods capture more depth and provide insights as to the "why" and "how" of attitudes and behaviours, clarify quantitative data and sometimes puts it into the context of people's lives and experiences. This makes quantitative data easier to understand, provides more details and nuances, and explains what the program means to the people involved.

Limitations: Qualitative data collection methods are time consuming to capture and analyze. This data is more subjective and may be difficult to summarize and compare systematically. It is generally viewed as less reliable because qualitative data is more subjective than quantitative methods, and may yield smaller sample sizes.

 

 

1.4. Technology enabled testing- Conceptual Overview

Technology offers innovative ways to help their students take tests. Technology-based testing has many advantages that can benefit both teachers and students. Technology helps to incorporate the principles of universal design for learning (UDL) and visual design so as to make the testing materials appropriate and thereby make them and accessible to and useable by students having a wide range of ability levels. Technology allows delivering a range of testing accommodations that are tailored to the unique strengths and challenges of students and to decrease the time spent giving, grading, and analyzing student performance on tests.

For students, taking tests via technology can be a more motivating and successful experience as they can select various test administration options and receive prompt feedback on their performance. In particular, technology- based testing can increase the participation of students with disabilities in standardized and teacher made testing programs.

Design/ Steps for developing Inclusive technology enabled Testing

Step 1	Assemble a group of experts to guide the new system of assessment
Step 2	Decide how each accommodation (for e.g. paper -pencil test, audio presentation, etc) will be incorporated into the computer- based test.
Step 3	Consider each assessment feature in light of the constructs being tested
Step 4	Consider the feasibility of incorporating this assessment feature into computer based tests.
Step 5	Consider training implications for staff and students

Implementation

Technology-enhanced items (TEI) are computer-delivered items that include specialized interactions for collecting response data. These include interactions and responses beyond traditional selected-response or constructed-response.

In a technology-based testing, care must be taken to

·        Enhance student motivation and feedback

·        Present test directions and items to students

·        Facilitate students' responses to test items

·        Testing conditions should be parallel to instructional conditions

·        The technology to be used by students during testing should be introduced to them and used regularly in daily classroom instruction

·        Use technology to motivate students by providing them with reinforcement and encouragement related to their responses and their testing behaviours

·        Use technology based testing to help your students identify correct and incorrect answers, the types of errors made, and the topics and concepts that they need to review.

·        Use technology to embed error minimisation techniques into tests to motivate your students by limiting their test taking errors. ( ie. Presenting only one test item on the screen at a time; making sure that students respond to a test item before they are allowed to move to the next item; pairing entered responses to items with visuals, animation, videos and pictorials, and sounds such as an automated visual animation and oral recording stating the answer option selected)

 

Scope of Technology enabled testing

Technology-based testing holds great promise for facilitating the testing process for teachers, students, and families. It helps in bridging the digital divide, preventing high-tech cheating, limiting distracting features, and fostering student and teacher preparation. It helps to provide students with numerous opportunities to use technology in daily classroom instructional activities.

Advantages of Technology enabled testing

·        Improves accessibility

·        Speeds development and testing of new assessments

·        Broader involvement in providing feedback

·        Reduce test taking for accountability only

·        Makes the link between assessment data and instructional resources

·        Students can check for themselves whether or not they understood an idea, without any risk of hurting their course grade

·        Tutored problem solving gives students a chance to work through complex problems with the opportunity to get scaffolds and hints to help them.

·        The students receive feedback on their solution success after doing each problem, and the system keeps track of how much assistance students needed for each problem as well as whether or not they successfully solved it.

 

 

1.5  Differentiated assessment – Meaning and Significance

The process of "ensuring that what a student learns?, how he or she learns it?, and how the student demonstrates what he or she has learned ? is a match for that student's readiness level, interests, and preferred mode of learning" (Tomlinson, 2004).

Students are individuals who learn at different rates and in different ways. The nature of each student should be considered when planning differentiated assessment experiences.

Meaning of Differentiation

Differentiation is the philosophy and process of developing and providing various strategies, options, and opportunities for students to learn and express learning. Differentiation considers differing student needs, backgrounds, prior learning, strengths, weaknesses, higher order thinking, creativity, and expectations.

Students are differentiated in their knowledge and skills. They differ in the ways and speeds at which they process new learning and connect it to prior knowledge and understanding. They also differ in the ways they most effectively demonstrate their progress. Differentiated assessment is an ongoing process through which teachers gather data before, during, and after instruction from multiple sources to identify learners' needs and strengths.

·        It is not just Modification

·        Changes in content, standards, or instructional level

·        It is not just Accommodation

·        Changes in time, amount of work, or process that do not lower standards (read aloud tests, extra time, reduced number of items)

Differentiated assessment involves teachers making adjustments to and modifying assessment activities for individual students or a group of students to cater for:

·        different learning needs

·        a range of learning styles and preferences

·        the differences between individual students, such as their current level of understanding and ability in relation to a particular topic or skill

·        prior learning experiences

·        motivation and engagement with learning

·        interests and talents

Differentiated Assessment: Two major theories highlighting the way students learn are:

Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences.

Gardner groups students into 8 broad categories:

·        Logical/mathematical (uses numbers effectively)

·        Visual/spatial (is artistically or spatially perceptive)

·        Bodily/ kinaesthetic (excels at tasks that require physical movement)

·        Musical (perceives and/or expresses musical forms and patterns)

·        Linguistic (uses words effectively)

·        Interpersonal (responds well to others)

·        Intrapersonal (is reflective and inner-directed)

·        Naturalist (makes distinctions in the natural world)

Assessing Multiple Intelligences assessment should reflect the diversity of intelligences and learning styles in the classroom. For example, students who are good at spatial learning might not display the full range of their knowledge on an essay test. In fact, traditional testing methods are inherently biased in favour of students with strong linguistic and mathematical skills. Teachers supplement their traditional assessment methods with assessment strategies that evaluate student progress in an inclusive, meaningful way.

MI theorists offer the following tips:

·        Emphasize ongoing assessment and progress. Continue to ask if and how students have improved their skills.

·        Introduce assessment to your students as a regular part of classroom life. Make assessment a part of the learning process, not a stressful, intimidating "event."

·        Try to use instruments, tools, and procedures that embrace some, if not all, of the multiple intelligences.

·        Use a wide range of assessment tools to measure students' skills and abilities.

·        Give lots of feedback

Neil Fleming's VAK (visual/ auditory/ kinaesthetic) model

Looking at Fleming's model, we can see that our schools cater mostly to auditory learners. Often don't use methods that cater to kinaesthetic learners. So the Grades are often stratified with auditory learners in the top percentile, visual learners in the mid-range of achievement, and kinaesthetic learners in the lower range.

Significance of differentiated assessment:

Differentiated assessment can lead to enhanced student learning as they use their current understanding to discover, construct and incorporate new knowledge, understanding and skills. It involves teachers considering a range of assessment opportunities to suit the needs, interests and abilities of individual students.

·        Collects data before, during and after teaching and learning experiences

·        Choice is key to the process. Choice of learning activity as well as choice in the assessment (how the student will demonstrate understanding).

·        Lessons and assessments are adapted to meet the needs and strengths of all learners

·        Opportunities for children to think for themselves are clearly evident.

·        Providing alternative methods and choices for students to demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and skills

·        Considering what resources and stimulus materials will assist students

·        The learning tasks always consider the students' strengths/weaknesses.

·        Visual learners will have visual cues; auditory learners will have auditory cues, etc.

·        Groupings of students will vary, some will work better independently, and others will work in various group settings.

·        Multiple intelligence is taken into consideration as are the students' learning and thinking styles. Lessons are authentic to ensure that all students can make connections.

·        Project and problem based learning are also key in differentiated instruction and assessment.

·        Providing opportunities to challenge students within their level of understanding and beyond

·        Providing individualized feedback to students to help identify strengths and areas for improvement

·        accommodating a range of student needs through flexible assessment planning and adjustments

When    planning    differentiated   assessment   opportunities   for    students, teachers should consider the:

·        Nature of the test instrument, including teacher-made tests, interest surveys, anecdotal evidence, performance-based activities, checklists of traits and characteristics, cognitive/intellectual and standardized achievement tests.

·        Nature of the feedback, including teacher observation of performance, parent and/or peer observation and feedback, interviews and conferences, and cumulative school history.

·        Involvement of students in the teaching, learning and assessment process, such as providing opportunities for self-assessment and self- reflection and the use of portfolios, learning journals and other ICT tools.

MODULE 2

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF EVALUATION

2.1 Achievement test-Teacher made test and standardized test - characteristics, steps in construction (blueprint) and standardization, types of test items – objective, short answer and long answer- its merits and demerits.

Achievement Test

The term to measure the knowledge, abilities and skills of students in schools. It measures extent to which a student has learned what he was intended to; normally based on the syllabus. A good achievement test contains a material that has already been taught. The items for an achievement test are prepared giving due weightage to various testing points as well as specific instructional objectives.

Achievement test are conducted by the teacher to test the scholastic achievement of learner at the end of unit or course. They have their own limitations. They cannot be used to compare performance of one school with that of other. For this purpose standardized achievement test are used. The items of this kind of test are based on the content and objectives common to a number of schools which are to be compared

Achievement test Construction

1.     Planning of the test

Before constructing an achievement test, the test constructor should think about the following aspect as part of planning.

·        purpose of the test

·        time for the text

·        Maximum and minimum mark

·        Nature and scope of questions

·        units to be selected

 

2.     Preparation of a design for the test

After determining the board scope of test, design has to be developed tune with it. Mainly factors 4 are to be considered while designing a test.

a)     Weightage to objective

b)     Weightage to content

c)      Weightage to forms of questions

d)     Weightage to difficulty level

 

a)     Weightage to objective indicates what objectives are to be tested what weighted has to be given to each of the tube the weighted should be decided according to the relative importance of nature of content

Sl. No	Objectives	Marks	Percentage
1	Knowledge	5	10
2	Understanding	15	30
3	Application	20	40
4	Skills	10	20
	Total	50	100

 

b)     Weightage to Content indicates various aspect of content and the weightage to be given to those different aspects. All the content should be covered and proper weightage should be given to each content according to their relative importance

Sl. No	Content	Marks	Percentage
1	Unit 1	5	10
2	Unit 2	15	30
3	Unit 3	20	40
4	Unit 4	10	20
	Total	50	100

 

c)      Weightage to forms of questions indicates the forms of the items to be included in the test and weightage to be given for each. The setter should select those forms of equations that are suitable to objectives and content to be tested.

Sl. No	Form of questions	Marks	Percentage
1	Objective	25	50
2	Short answer	15	30
3	Essay	10	20
	Total	50	100

 

 

d)     Weightage to difficulty level: appropriate weightage should be given for the difficulty levels of difficult of the item. The test should be cater to the bright, the average and the dull

 

3.     Preparation of the blue print

The blueprint gives the details of the design in concrete terms. Blue print is prepared as a three-dimensional chart indicating the distribution of questions objective wise, content wise and form wise.

The following table shows the blueprint for an achievement test (the number outside the bracket indicates the marks and those inside the indicate the number of question

Objectives	Knowledge			Understanding			Application			Skill			Total
Forms of question/ content	O	S	E	O	S	E	O	S	E	O	S	E
Unit 1	1 (1)	3 (1)		3 (3)			1 (1)			2 (2)			10
Unit 2				3 (3)	3 (1)		4 (4)			1 (1)			11
Unit 3				2 (2)	3 (1)		1 (1)		10 (1)	3 (3)			19
Unit 4	1 (1)			1 (1)			1 (1)	3 (1)		1 (1)	3 (1)		10
Sub total	2 (2)	3 (1)		9 (9)	6 (2)		7 (7)	3 (1)	10 (1)	7 (7)	3 (1)
Total	5			15			20			10

4.     Writing of items

The blueprint gives a very clear idea about the number of questions to be written from each topic, their forms and objectives. With this precise directive suggested by the blueprint the paper setter can start writing item according to the requirements. While writing the items the difficulty level should be considered. Whether all questions can be answered within the time allotted should also be considered. Test item construction demand mastery of content and technique of constructing each type of questions

·        Preliminary details

·        Name of the examination

·        Title of the paper

·        Maximum mark and time

·        Instruction for answering each part etc.

 

5.     Preparation of the Scoring Key and Marking Scheme

In order to maintain objectivity, scoring should be made strictly in accordance with the prepared scheme of valuation. So it is essential to prepare the scoring key and the marking scheme simultaneously with question paper.

For objective type questions, answer in one word or letter or symbols and currently is prepared for it. For short answer and essays marking scheme is prepared. In marking schemes the value points and marks for each value point is listed out. This will help to identify the defects if any.

QUESTION NO	SCORING KEY	MARK	PERCENTAGE
1	A) ......................   B) ......................	1 1 2 1 2	1   1

 

6.     Preparation of question wise analysis

This is done by making an analysis of each item in terms of content, objective, forms of question, difficulty level mark and estimated time. It is helpful to check whether all aspects are covered and blueprint is satisfied. If mistake is noticed, it can be rectified at this stage

Q.NO	CONTENT	OBJECTIVE	DIFFICULTY LEVEL	FORM OF QUESTION	TIME	MARK
1	UNIT 1	KNOWLEDGE	EASY	OBJECTIVE	1 MIN	1

Functions of achievement test

·        Provide basis of promotion to the next grade

·        Help in finding out at the beginning of the year where each student stands in the various academic areas

·        Help in determining the relative position of a student in a particular subject or area of teaming

·        Help the teacher to see for himself how effectively he is doing, what is getting across two peoples and what is not

 

Characteristics of a good achievement test

·        A good achievement test is tried out and selected on the basis of difficulty level and discriminating power

·        It should have a description of a measured behaviour

·        It should contain sufficient number of test items for each measured behaviour

·        It provides equivalent and compatible forms of the test

·        It is accompanied by norms which are developed at various level and on various age groups

·        The instructions regard to its administrating and scoring are so clear that they become standardized for different uses

Achievement tests are of two types: teacher made and standardized test Teacher made test

Teacher murder test are frequently the basis of evaluating process of students in the class. A teacher made test is a simple thing and generally used by teachers for his own reference and review

Teacher made tests are of two types

a)     Oral test: It is the oldest form of achievement test. They are common in lower classes. An advantage of this test is that a large number of areas can be covered and knowledge of the student can be assessed. But it is difficult to test each people on the basis of total curriculum. The examiner does not have any written proof regarding the pupil's attainment.

b)     Written test: This can be divided into three types - essay type, short answer type and objective type.

Characteristics teacher made test

 

·        They made to access comprehensively the extent and degree of student’s progress with reference to specific classroom activities.

·        They permit the teacher to ascertain a pupil's strength, weakness and needs

·        They provide immediate feedback for the teachers as the effectiveness of his teaching method and can make necessary adjustments and improvement

·        They motivate the students

·        They are simple to use

·        They provide information which is a basis on the progress of students

Limitations

·        Tests are either too short or too lengthy.

·        The test does not cover the entire content

·        Tests are usually conducted in a hurry

·        Supervision is not proper

·        There is a lot of scope for copying

Standardized test

Standardized test is an instrument for measuring bed of which measures but it seeks to measure it correctly with constant result it is constructed according to the standard of the achievement of the efficiency of individual to be tested neither too easy not too difficult the standardization refers to the degree to which the observational procedure administrative procedure equipments and materials and the scoring rules have been fixed so that the same testing procedure requires at different times and places

 

Characteristics of standardized test

·        Items are fixed and not modifiable. The most common areas of curriculum are included in the test

·        A standardized test is constructed by test specialist for expats

·        Rules for administration and scoring are determined by the author of the test and must be followed exactly as stated in the test manual

·        Standardized test are provided to compare class performance between different ages and different class groups

·        Data on the quality of the test are provided along with the test

·        Validity and reliability of the standardized test are ensured from the beginning of the construction

Procedure of standardization of a test

1.     Preparation of the preliminary test

The first step in construction of a test is to prepare a design and blueprint for the final form of the test. About double the number of items are required in the blueprint for the final test are included in the prime preliminary test so as to ensure sufficient number of acceptable items will be available at the end

2.     Preliminary testing

A test normally standardized for a specific area, which can be at town, district, state or country. It is desirable to administer the preliminary test to a random sample of students belonging to the category for which the test is made - boys and girls, rural and urban, Government and aided school students. For practical reason a sample of 370 students will be convenient for the purpose of administrating the preliminary test, though there is no compulsion that the number should be that itself

3.     Item analysis

It is the process by which the items selected by preliminary test are accepted. The procedure for doing item analysis is suited for objective and multiple choice items

The procedure analysis are as follows:

a.     Determine the best 27 percentage and it was poorest 27 percentage of the sample

The 370 scripts obtained after the preliminary test are scored and total score of each script is noted. Then these are arranged in the descending order of the total scores and the highest 27 percentage and lowest 27 percentage are separated. Thus 100, being a very convenient number, will facilitate for the calculations and hence 370 is suggested as the sample in the preliminary test

b.     Determine the percentage with two groups that answer each item correctly

Examine the answer script in either group and determine the number of examines for the group, who have answered each item correctly.

Now each item will have two comparable scores, namely percentage the uppermost group and lower group that correctly responded to an item. These percentage can be converted to quotients also for example 25 percentage can be written as 25

c.      Determine the difficulty index (Di) of the items

The difficulty index of an item is represented by the percentage of students who responded to the items currently. More the percentage of correct responses, easier the item

𝑈 + 𝐿

𝐷i =

2𝑁

Where n is the number of examinees in the upper or lower group and

you U and L are the number of correct responses made by upper and lower groups

d.     Determining the discriminating power (Dp)

The discriminating power of an item is characterized by its power to discriminate between upper and lower groups. Larger the difference, more the power to discriminate

𝐷𝑝 =

𝑈 − 𝐿

 

𝑁

Where n is the number of examinees in the upper or lowerr group

and U and L the number of correct responses made by both upper and lower groups

The items which having high discriminating power and average difficulty index are considered as excellent items

4.     Preparation of the final draft

After rating the items, applying the principle of item analysis. The best ones that satisfy blueprint of the final test, designed in the first are selected.

After finalizing the items to be included, these may be arranged in the order of difficulty, the instruction and the details are added to get the final draft of the test

5.     Selection of the sample for the final test

The sample should represent all the relevant strata decided upon; and that too in the correct proportion as these are distributed in the total population.

Strata should present a three aspects namely proportion to which the representation to be given, total number of the sample and the institutions to be included in the programme as well as the students to be selected from each institution

6.     Administration of the final test

A good planning is required for this part. The school authorities have to be contacted well in advance with a view to secure permission for the conduction of the test as per the schedule. It is required to conduct the test everywhere at the same time of the day, preferably during morning hours

7.     Scoring

The scoring of scripts should be according to the scheme of valuation prepared in advance by the paper setter

8.     Calculation of Norms

Norm is quantitative measure representing the standard of a specific group. Norms are divided into age norms, grade norms, local norms, sex norms, percentile norms

9.     Determination of validity and reliability

Validity of the test concerns what the test measures and how will it does. The validity and reliability of the standardized test has to established. Higher the correlation coefficient, the higher will be the validity. Content validity, face validity, concurrent validity, statistical validity should be known.

Reliability means the consistency of the test scores. Reliability can be found by the test-retest method, equivalent method and split half method. A value of 0.8 indicate high reliability

10.Preparation of the manual

Manual is a booklet containing the details of the scope of test, instruction of administration, details of different norms, validity and reliability. The investigator has to prepare a test manual for the future study

 

Standardized test	Teacher made test
Wide application	Limited application
Content    is    determined    by   experts after       investigation       of       syllabus. Sampling is done systematically.	Sampling and content are determined by classroom teachers.
Construction: Construction after carefully defining instructional objectives, involves test blue print, item tryouts, item analysis and revision	Constructed in a hurry. Often there is no blue pint, item tryouts, item analysis and revision.
Norms:    local,    school,    district    and national norms are available	Only    local     classroom     norms     are available
Administration and Scoring: specific instructions regarding administration and scoring procedures are given	No      uniform      direction      regarding administration and scoring.
Purpose: best suited for measuring broader curriculum objectives and interschool, inter district and national level comparisons are possible.	Best suit for measuring particular objectives set by teacher and for inter classes

Accurate generalisation can be drawn	Accurate    generalisation    cannot    be drawn
Can be used at any time and place of any population	Used by teacher who made it
Specific      instructions,      standardized administration and scoring procedure	Usually no uniform direction
Content determined by curricular and subject matter experts	Both     content     and     sampling     are determined by teacher
Preparation and   construction   by   a team of experts	Prepared by teacher
Scoring is objective	Scoring is subjective

 

Types of test items

A written test is composed of a number of test items: essay type, short answer type and objective type

Objective type

An objective type of test item is one in which the responses will be objective. The different types of objective items are true or false type, multiple choice type, matching type and completion type

 

Advantages

·        It can be scored objectively and easily. The scoring will not vary from time to time and from examiner to examiner. Scoring can be done even mechanically

·        An adequately representative sample of the topic can be covered. A large amount of study materials can be tested in a short period of time

·        It reduces the subjective element of the examiner to the minimum

·        It reduces the role of luck and cramming of expected questions. As a result there is greater reliability and validity

·        It promotes economy of time, for it takes less time to answer. It also saves a lot of time of the scorer

·        It eliminates irrelevant factors such as speed of writing, fluency of expression, literacy style, good handwriting neatness etc

·        They have high diagnostic value

·        They are free from opportunities of irrelevant answers

Limitations of objective type test

 

·        Items are difficult to construct. Preparing good items require talent, imagination and effort

·        There is a chance for guess work in certain types

·        Problem of cheating

·        Emphasis on testing the superficial knowledge

Short answer type test

A question requiring four value points at the most may be defined as a short answer question. The term value points indicate a point to be given credit in the expected answer. This diminishes subjectivity. Short answer type questions are of great help in having a wide coverage of content and each item can be set to test a definite objective

Advantages of short answer type test

·        A relatively larger portion of the content can be covered in a test

·        It is easy to construct, because it measures a relatively simple learning outcome

·        Questions of this form can be made highly thought provoking

·        It provides little opportunity for guessing as the examinee is required to supply specific information

·        It can be quiet objective by carefully fixing up value points

·        It is useful in evaluating the ability to interpret diagrams, chart, graphs etc

Limitations of short answer type test

·        More subjective than objective type of items

·        Rote memory is encouraged

·        It is not possible because of the subjectivity involved

 

As in the case of objective type items, due care has to be taken in preparing short answer type of test items. Probably analysing the content in relation to the objectives and the specific behaviours, designing problematic situations suitable for the evaluation of the specifications and wording the items precisely so as to avoid ambiguity and subjectivity are the steps to be taken for the preparation of good short answer type of items

Essay type test

This is the age old traditional type of questions, so well known and so frequently used. It is a free response test items and covers a large content. This is the type which can help in evaluating complex skills and other similar behavioural patterns

Advantages of essay type test

·        It is the most popular form

·        Easy to construct and administer

·        Allows relative freedom of response to given problem

·        Students can express their ideas clearly

·        It is quite useful in meaning very important abilities of the child

·        They lead qualitative evaluation of pupil's achievement

·        It promotes originality and creative thinking

·        Reduces the chances of on the spot copying

·        The possibility of guesswork can be eliminated

·        Comprehension of the subject matter as a whole is encouraged

Limitations of essay type test

·        Minimum validity. This means they do not bring out proper distinction between bright, good and poor students

·        Do not processes sufficient reliability and objectivity

·        More stress on the rote memorization

·        They cannot comprehendly cover the content

·        Through essay type items, proper evaluation of a specific ability is not possible.

·        Since the number of items is limited, there is an element of chance. This leads to selective study on the part of the students, which is not desirable.

However, the objectivity of essay type questions also can be improved with the proper care and scientific planning. The value points involved should be determined as possible and the wordings should be regulated as to reflect these value points specifically. Precise scheme of valuation should be prepared and strictly followed at the time of valuation. These precuations will help in improving the quality of essay type items

2.3 Characteristics of good evaluation instrument – validity, reliability, objectivity, practicability, comprehensiveness, objective basedness and discriminating power.

1.   Objectivity

A tool said to be objective if it is free from personal bias in interpreting its scope as well as the scoring the responses. Objectivity is one of the most primary prerequisite required for maintaining all other qualities of a good tool. Objectivity of a test can be increased by using more objective type items and the answers are scored according to the model of answers provided

2.  Objective Basedness

Any test should be based on predetermined objectives. A setter should have definite idea about the objective behind each item. Also the objectives taken together should be in accordance with the weightage given in the design of the test

3.   Comprehensiveness

A test should cover the old syllabus. Due importance should be given to all the relevant learning material. It should also cover all the anticipated objectives

4.   Reliability

Reliability of a tool refers to the degree of consistency and accuracy with which it measures whatever it measures. If the evaluation gives more or less the same result every time it is used, such evaluation is said to be reliable. Reliability is related to trustworthiness. A measure is considered reliable if a person’s score on the same test given twice similar. Consistency of a tool can be improved by limiting subjectivity of all kinds. Consistency of a tool can be improved by limiting subjectivity of all kinds. Making items on the basis of pre determined specific objectives, ensuring that the expected answers are definite and objective, providing clearly prepared scoring key and conducting evaluation and under identical and ideal conditions will help in enhancing reliability. Test-retest method, split half method and the equivalent from or parallel form method important methods used to determine the reliability of a tool.

Factors Affecting Reliability

·       Length of the test

·       Objectivity in scoring

·       Ambiguous wording of items and instruction

·       Difficulty of items

·       Inconsistencies in test administration

·       Optional questions

·       Group homogeneity

5.  Validity

Validity is the most important quality needed for an evaluation tool. If the tool is able to measure what it is intended to measure, it can be said that the tool is valid. It should fulfil the objectives for which it is developed. Validity can be defined as the accuracy with which it measures what it is intended to measure. Content validity, predictive validity, construct validity, concurrent validity, congruent validity, factorial validity, criterion-related validity etc are some of the important types of validity which is needed to fulfil by a tool for evaluation.

Factors affecting validity

·        reading vocabulary: if reading vocabulary is poor, the students fail to answer, even if they know the answer, the validity decreases

·        difficult and poorly constructed items may reduce the validity

·        inappropriate time limit

·        inadequate coverage

·        inadequate weightage to subtopics or objectives

·        medium of expression

·        influence of factors like style of expression, length of the answer, grammar etc

6.  Discriminating power

A test should be able to discriminate the respondents on the basis of phenomena measured.

7.    Compatibility

A test possess compatibility when scores obtained by administrating can be interpreted in terms of a common base that has a natural or accepted meaning

8.    Adequacy

A test should be adequate with respect to many factors like age of the respondents, their academic level, mental ability etc

9.  Practicability

A tool, however, satisfies the above criteria may be unless if it is not practically feasible. For example, suppose, in order to ensure our comprehensiveness, it was felt that thousand items should be given to be answered in 10 hours. This may yield valid result, but from a practical point of view it is quite impossible. Practicability includes ease of administration, ease of scoring and ease of interpretation.

10.   Utility

Utility of a test may be considered as the final master criterion. A test has utility if it provides the test conditions that would facilitate realisation of the purpose for which it is meant. For achieving utility it is essential that the test is constructed in the light of well-defined purpose and each and its interpretations are used in obtaining desirable results

 

 

2.3     Educational Diagnosis-Concepts, Steps in the Construction of Diagnostic Test and Remediation

Educational diagnosis concept

Educational diagnosis implies the use of technical procedures designed to locate, specific learning and instructional difficulties, and if possible, to determine their causes

The diagnosis of difficulties underlying educational accomplishment undoubtedly constitutes the high point in the supervisory and instructional uses of educational test

Objectives of educational diagnosis

·        it is an examination of intra - individual differences

·        special attention on live relationship between student’s achievement and his capacity or mental ability

·        discovering the casual factors

·        locating learning difficulties

 

Types of India educational diagnosis

1.     corrective diagnosis

2.     preventive diagnosis

Merits

·        to identify the strength and weakness in students within a subject field

·        teachers get aware of scholarship and behavioural problems among students

·        to analyse students oral or written responses in specific areas of difficulty

·        appropriate remedial instructions can be supplied as soon as possible

·        continuous diagnosis gives a marked change in students which we can be shown in expect expectancy chart.

Limitations

·        teacher has to try hard to find out the problems

·        burden of keeping many records

·        workload to both student and teacher

·        time-consuming

 

Diagnostic test

It is a test designed to identify and investigate difficulties, disabilities, inadequacies and gaps of pupils in specific curriculum areas with a view of helping them overcome these difficulties through remedial instructions

The term diagnosis has been borrowed from medical profession. It means identification of disease by means of patient’s symptoms. For example, when a patient comes to a doctor, doctor initially put some questions on the patient to gather some basic information about the disease and then uses other techniques to get more related information to identify the disease and it's probable causes

After careful analysis of these data, he prescribes the medicine or remedial treatment. Similarly in the field of education, diagnosis has many such implications. Difficulties in learning occurs frequently at all levels and among peoples of both high and low mental ability.

In order to handle such cases, the teacher also uses similar techniques like a doctor to diagnose and the relative strengths and weakness of pupil in the specific area of study, analyses the causes for same and provides remedial measures as per necessity.

Since tools and techniques used in mental measurements are not that exact, objective and precise like the tools and techniques used in sciences, the teachers are cautioned to use the diagnostic data with great care for designing remedial programmes.

But it is used in education to determine the learning difficulties or deficiencies of the learner. Diagnostic test is a test used to diagnose strength and weakness of the learning in certain areas of study whereas diagnostic evaluation is centred on schooling process such as the curriculum programme, administration and so on.

When learning difficulties that are left unresolved by the standard corrective prescriptions of formative evaluation and a pupil continues to experience failure despite the use of prescribed alternative methods of instruction, then a more detailed diagnosis is indicated.

Following are the salient features of Diagnostic testing

i)                   Diagnostic test takes up where the formative test leaves off

ii)                 A Diagnostic text is a means by which an individual profile is examined and compared against certain norms or criteria

iii)               Diagnostic test focuses on individual’s educational weaknesses or learning deficiency and identify the gap in pupils

iv)               Diagnostic tests is more intense and act as a tool for analysis of learning difficulties

v)                 Diagnostic test is more often limited to low ability students

vi)               diagnostic test is corrective in nature

vii)             diagnostic tests in pinpoint the specific types of error each pupil is making and it searches for underlying causes of the problem

viii)           diagnostic tests is much more comprehensive

ix)               diagnostic test help us to identify the trouble spots and discovered those areas of students weaknesses that are unresolved by formative test

Purpose of diagnostic tests

i)                   to identify the strength and weakness in individual with in a subject field

ii)                 to identify the cause for poor achievement

iii)               to identify the learning difficulty associated with the student

iv)               to get an awareness of the behavioural and scholastic problems of the child

v)                 to find out appropriate remedial measures to solve the problem

Types of Diagnostic test

·        Pre Diagnostic test

·        Post Diagnostic test

Construction of a diagnostic test

·        Identification of potential problem area: the first step in construction of the test is to identify the potential problem area.

·        Purposeful planning: this aims at identification of learning materials that are known to have potential difficulties. An experienced teacher can identify such areas by proper analysis. Such areas will have more weightage in the test.

·        Analysis of content: the content should be thoroughly analysed, first into teaching points. Each stage may include a number of stages. These stages should be arranged in the sequential order of difficulty as well as logical sequence. This is a very important step that needs great care and insight.

·        Writing of test item: write test items representing all the minute steps arising out of the analysis. Arrange these items in the order taking into consideration both sequence of the stage and difficulty level

·        Division into small section: sometimes the total number of items will be very large then, more time will be required to workout these items. In such cases, items may be divided into two or three sections to suit the convenience of the learners. The subset thus obtained may be administered of different occasions.

·        Pilot try out of the test: In order to establish the authenticity of the test a pilot try out can be conduct upon a sample group, where the teacher can eliminate the unnecessary items and include certain items which are more useful in diagnosing the difficulty of the learner.

·        Make the test valid: Validity is nothing but the truthfulness of the test, the test should assess what it proposed to. This can be done using the various types of validity procedures.

·        Provision of clear instruction: Very clear instructions should be given as to what the pupil should do and how. If they find any difficulty with a particular item, they should be directed to pass on to the next item without wasting time.

·        Administration of the test: Administering the test to the target group must be given at most care and attention. Teacher should decide whether the test is administered to an individual, a group or to the entire class. Depending on the scope, need and intencity of problem to be diagnosed.

·        Analysis of the result of the diagnostic test: The result of a diagnostic test has to be analyzed with a view to find out the exact area in which difficulties exist and to determine what exactly the nature of each difficulty is. This may be done with respect to the group tested (group Diagnosis) as well as for each individual student (Individual Diagnosis). The former is meant to locate difficulties general for the group while the latter aims at helping each individual student solve specific difficulties of his own. On the basis of these analysis, there as on for each difficulty has to be determined. This process is one that requires both competence and imagination, arising out experience.

·        Remedial instruction: A well designed instructional package has to be developed in order to overcome the specific difficulty is the end stage in the educational diagnosis. This remedial package should be in accordance with the analysis of the diagnostic test result.

Advantages

·        to find the difficulties of students in learning a specific area

·        identifies the causes result in poor achievement

·        finding problems before it becomes a serious problem for students, parents and teachers

·        can give remedy instructions appropriately

·        it is essential for effective learning

·        it is highly useful in educational evaluation

·        helps the learner to overcome his difficulties in certain areas or subject

Limitations

·        highly time-consuming

·        workload for teachers large amount of resources and trained teachers are required

ACHIEVEMENT TEST

DIAGNOSIS TEST

·        Measures how much a student has achieved. ·        Give        due       weightage       to objective, content.. ·        Give due weightage to every topic in the content area ·        Strictly observes time factor ·        For the purpose of promotion ·        Test arranged in the order of difficulty level of items. ·        Construction    is    easy    as    per predetermined steps

·        Measures how much a student has not been achieved and why ·        Consider everything–that is done in a critical and analytical way. ·        Give greater emphasis to the aspect with potential difficulty. ·        Not concerned with the time factor. ·        For the purpose of identifying the difficulties. ·        Arranged in the order of learning sequence. ·        Construction of the test requires more imagination

 

Remedial Instruction or teaching

When once exact nature of the difficulties and reasons are known, the teacher has to take steps for remedial instruction. It can be in the group level or individual level depending upon the scope of diagnosis

Special features of remedial instruction

·        it is a process of instruction that follows immediately after the diagnostic test

·        teacher plans strategies for remedial teaching on the basis of nature of the difficulties and reasons behind it

·        teacher provides additional learning experience to compensate the difficulty

·        remedial instruction is based on the type of difficulties

·        diagnosis and remedial instructions instruction should be continuous and integral part of effective instruction

·        it is an extensive effort to improve motivation, correct emotional difficulties, overcome deficiencies in work, study skill

·        it is a process of reviewing and reaching a specific topic which the student face difficulty

Testing and evaluation can help a vital role in most remedial programs. The use of periodic testing during primary teaching might serve the following functions

·        Clarify the students the specific types of responses that are expected

·        provide further diagnostic information about the students difficulties and learning needs

·        give the students a feeling of success through the use of a carefully graded series of test experiences

·        enhance motivation by providing short term goals and immediate knowledge of progress

·        provide information concerning the effectiveness of the remedial procedures

Merits

·        it makes the maladjusted children to adjustable

·        resistant to cooperative

·        rebuilds the personality of the students

·        it helps the teachers to solve the problems of his student

 

 

2.4   Uses of evaluation - placement, promotion, grouping, diagnosis and remediation.

Placement

Evaluation can be used in placement of students in a profession/course. Such evaluation focuses on students’ entry behaviour. It determines the knowledge and skills a student possesses.

Promotion

Evaluation is a tool used to determine promotion especially in education. It focuses on the knowledge and skill acquisition of students at the end of a course/ grade. Results of both formative and summative evaluation should be used to avoid controversy.

Grouping/Classification

Classification and grouping of students on the basis of their level of attainment and abilities are also the functions of evaluation. For example, on the basis of evaluation, a sample can be divided into different classes-above averages, average and below average.

Diagnosis and Remediation:

Diagnosis is concerned with the persistent/recurring learning difficulties that are left unresolved by the standard corrective prescription of formative assessment. Remediation on the basis of the difficulties it is also a function of evaluation.

Motivation

Guidance and Counselling

Module 3- Reforms in Evaluation

3.1   Recent Trends and Practices in Assessment and Evaluation assignments, projects, seminars, group discussion, portfolios, rubrics, student profile, Poster assessment, open book exam, participatory assessment, peer assessment

Modem evaluation is entirely different from the past idea of evaluation. In the past evaluation, students were evaluated on written terminal examinations and only the cognitive development was evaluated. Affective and psychomotor domains were completely neglected. More importance was given to summative evaluation and that was not continuous and comprehensive.

Changes in need of society, changes in educational goals and use of psychological theories brought many changes in evaluation. The changes or the modern trends in evaluation are given below.

·        National Policy of Education (1986) stressed the need for making evaluation continuous and comprehensive.

·        Gives stress to formative and summative evaluation at the same time.

·        Evaluate all aspects of development through different methods

·        Evaluation should fulfil the functions of formative evaluation leading to immediate feedback, knowledge of result, diagnosis and remediation

·        Summative evaluation should fulfil the functions like gradation and placement.

·        Grading and semester systems were introduces in evaluation

·        Evaluate pupil with regard to three dimensions.

o   Evaluation of scholastic skills

o   Evaluation of co-scholastic skills

o   Evaluation of personal and social qualities

Recent trends in evaluation includes

·        Internal assessment

·        Continuous and comprehensive evaluation grading

ASSIGNMENTS

Assignment is an instructional technique comprises of the guided information, self-learning, writing skills and report preparation by the learners. The assignment method inculcates the learning experiences, information retrieval

and report writing skills. The following objectives can be derived from the assignment method.

·        It    provides    good    training    for    information    seeking    and    retrieval behaviour.

·        It inculcates the self-learning attitude among the students.

·        It provides information analysis and research attitude to the learners.

·        It develops the learning experiences from various sources.

Role of teacher

In order to achieve the desired objectives from the Assignments, the teacher should mind the following stages before assigning the work to the students.

·        The assignment must be lesson concerned and related with the text books and curriculum.

·        The topic/ unit of the assignment must be explained with the availability of resources.

·        The core of the subject or unit must be clarified.

·        The hard and difficult portions of the assignment need to be explained well.

Types of Assignments

Generally, assignments are classified into two types

·        Home Assignment

·        School Assignment

Home Assignment: The Assignment given by the teacher is completed by the students in their home with the help of reference books and instruction/ information provided by the teacher. The completed assignments are then evaluated by the teacher.

School Assignment: Prior to the experiments to be done or any difficult tasks, the teacher interrogates some questions regarding the experiment or tasks. The students have to find the answers with the help of text books and other reference books and report it in written form. The teacher observes the information collected by the students. If it is relevant and sufficient, the students will be allowed to proceed further towards the experiment or task. Otherwise they are again instructed with further information and clarification to resubmit the assignments. Such assignments are termed as school assignments.

Fundamental Elements of Assignments

·        Assignments must be clear and well defined.

·        It should be precise as well as having sufficient information to enable complex task by the students.

·        The teacher should clear the obstacle of assignment proposed.

·        New topics for assignments should be correlated with earlier learning experiences.

·        Assignment must balance the skills and interest of the students as well as their age and attitude.

·        Assignment must enhance the interest in learning experiences of the students.

·        Assignment proposed should be in line with individual differences and time management skills.

·        Library/laboratory    facilities     are     mandatory     for     completion     of assignments.

Merits

·        This method is based on Learning by doing

·        The students form the habit of extra study

·        It helps in developing scientific attitude.

·        Each student can work at his/her own pace.

·        The teacher can have individual attention of pupils.

Limitations

·        The success of the method depends on the well-drawn up assignment.

·        The text books written on these lines are not available.

·        It requires a well-equipped library and laboratory.

·        The weaker students may copy from the brighter students.

Evaluation Criteria

Sl. No	Stages	Points to be noted	Score
1	Understanding of the content	Knowledge about the content	4/3/2/ 1
2	Comprehensiveness of the content	Content coverage	4/3/2/ 1
3	Ability to present	Structure, clarity in language, creativity	4/3/2/ 1
4	Conclusion	Observation and findings	4/3/2/ 1
5	Punctuality	Time bound completion	4/3/2/ 1

PROJECT

Project is an important component to the teaching-learning process. It is based on the inquisitive questions aroused in the minds of the students while they are through some learning activities. The projects should be within the comprehension and feasibility of the learner. Teacher should be a guide in every phase of the project.

The important phases of the completion of a project are

·        Choosing the topic

·        Planning the project

·        Data collection

·        Data analysis

·        Inference and conclusion

·        Reporting and recording

·        Evaluation

Every Stage has a definite procedure. Students can move through different stages only after completing the preceding stage. Every project must be of inquisitive nature and must have a provision for collecting data and analysing it scientifically.

Evaluating a Project

Projects should be properly evaluated through different stages. The important points to be kept in mind while evaluating a project are

·        Precision, accuracy and comprehensiveness in planning

·        Systematic recording

·        Comprehensiveness in analysis

·        Possibility of reaching conclusions

·        Project report- scientific nature and comprehensiveness

·        Presentation of concepts and communication skill

·        Participation in project work.

Sl. No	Indicators	Weight
1	Ability to plan	1
2	Clarity of content in procedure	1
3	Ability to do data collection	1
4	Ability to do analysis	1
5	Project report and presentation	1

SEMINAR

Seminar is "the structured group discussion that may proceed or follow a formal lecture, often in the form of a paper presentation'.

The main objectives of a seminar are:

·        To provide in-depth understanding of subject matter

·        To promote tolerance and co-operation among students

·        To help in overcoming the problem of stage fear.

·        To develop the ability of keen attention and to present ideas effectively

·        To acquire good manners of raising and answering questions

Types of Seminar

·        Mini Seminar: Discussion on a topic in a classroom situation is called mini seminar.

·        Major Seminar: Seminar organised in a department level or institutional level is called a major seminar.

·        State/ National/ International Seminar: Seminars organised by any NGO, State, National, International agencies are called state/ national/ international seminars.

Merits

·        Develops analytical and critical thinking.

·        Develops skill in organising and presenting given subject matter in a systematic way.

·        Develops learner’s self-reliance and self-confidence.

·        Develops the ability to comprehend major ideas

·        Develops the ability to raise relevant and pin-pointed questions.

Demerits

·        Lack of preparation makes a seminar mere waste.

·       

Sl. No Indicators Weight 1 Ability to plan 1 2 Knowledge of content 1 3 Presentation 1 4 Reference/ Review 1

Formal structure restricts participants from asking questions. Evaluating a Seminar

GROUP DISCUSSION

Group discussion may refer to a communicative situation that allows its participants to express views and opinions and share with other participants. It is a systematic oral exchange of information, views and opinions about a topic, issue, problem or situation among members of a group who share certain common objectives.

GD is essentially an interactive oral process. The group members need to listen to each other and use voice and gesture effectively use clear language and persuasive style.

GD is structured. The exchange of ideas in a GD takes place in a systematic and structured way. Each of the participants gets an opportunity to express his/her views and comments on the views expressed by other members of the group.

GD involves a lot of group dynamics, that is, it involves both -person to person as well as group to group interactions. Every group member has to develop a goal oriented or group oriented interaction. A participant needs to be aware of needs of other group members and overall objectives of the discussion.

Group discussion may be defined as - a form of systematic and purposeful oral process characterized by the formal and structured exchange of views on a particular topic, issue, problem or situation for developing information and understanding essential for decision making or problem solving.

Characteristics of Successful Group Discussion

For any group discussion to be successful, following characteristics are necessary:

Having a clear objective: The participants need to know the purpose of group discussion. So that they can concentrate during the discussion and contribute to achieving the group goal. An effective GD typically begins with a purpose stated by the initiator.

Motivated Interaction: When there is a good level of motivation among the members, they learn to subordinate the personal interests to the group interest and the discussions are more fruitful.

Logical Presentation: Participants decide how they will organise the presentation of individual views, how an exchange of the views will take place, and how they will reach a group consensus. If the mode of interaction is not

decided, few of the members in the group may dominate the discussion and thus will make the entire process meaningless.

Cordial Atmosphere: Development of a cooperative, friendly, and cordial atmosphere avoids the confrontation between the group members.

Effective Communication skills: The success of a GD depends on an effective use of communication techniques. Like any other oral communication, clear pronunciation, simple language, right pitch are the pre-requisites of a GD. Non- verbal communication has to be paid attention to since means like body language convey a lot in any communication.

Participation by all candidates: When all the members participate, the GD becomes effective. Members need to encourage each other in the GD.

Leadership Skills: Qualities like initiation, logical presentation, encouraging all the group members to participate, summarizing the discussion reflect the leadership qualities.

Evaluation in a GD

In any kind of GD, the aim is to judge the participants based on personality, knowledge, communicative ability to present the knowledge and leadership skills. The evaluators generally assess the oral competence of a candidate in terms of team listening, appropriate language, clarity of expression, positive speech attitudes and adjustments, clear articulation, and effective non-verbal communication.

Personality: Even before one starts communicating, the attire of a participant creates an impression, hence it is essential to be dressed appropriately. The facial expression helps to convey attitudes like optimism, self-confidence and friendliness, "The examiners closely watch the non-verbal behaviour of candidates to determine personality factors such as nervousness, cooperation, frustration, weakness, insecurity, self-confidence, defensiveness, and so forth.

Content: Content is a combination of knowledge and ability to create coherent, logical arguments on the basis of that knowledge. In a group discussion, greater the knowledge of the subject more confident and enthusiastic would be the participation. Participants need to have a fair amount of knowledge on a wide range of subjects.

Communication Skill: GD tests one's behaviour as well as one’s influence on the group, formal language and mutual respect. The members of the selection

committee closely evaluate the oral communication skills of the candidates. The effective communication would imply use of correct grammar and vocabulary, using the right pitch, good voice quality, clear articulation, logical presentation of the ideas and above all, a positive attitude. Use simple and specific language. Avoid ornamental language. Clarity of expression is one of the important criteria of communication. When there is clarity of thinking, there is clarity in usage of language.

Listening Skills: Lack of active listening is often a reason for failure of communication. In the GD, participants often forget that it is a group activity and not a solo performance as in elocution. By participating as an active listener, he/she may be able to contribute significantly to the group deliberations. The listening skills are closely linked to the leadership skills as well.

Leadership Skills: The success of any group depends to a large extent upon the leader. One of the common misconceptions about leadership is that the leader is the one who controls the group. A candidate’s success in a GD test will depend not only on his/her subject knowledge and oral skills but also on his/her ability to provide leadership to the group. The leader in a group discussion should be able to manage the group despite differences of opinion and steer the discussion to a logical conclusion within the fixed time limit.

PORTFOLIO

A student portfolio is a compilation of academic work and other forms of educational evidence assembled for the purpose of

(1)  evaluating coursework quality, learning progress, and academic achievement;

(2)  determining whether students have met learning standards or other academic requirements for courses, grade-level promotion, and graduation;

(3)  helping students reflect on their academic goals and progress as learners; and

(4)  Creating a lasting archive of academic work products, accomplishments.

Portfolios come in many forms, from notebooks filled with documents, notes, and graphics to online digital archives and student-created websites, and they may be used at the elementary, middle, and high school levels. Portfolios can be a physical collection of student work that includes materials such as written

assignments, journal entries, completed tests, artwork, lab reports, physical projects, and other material evidence of learning progress and academic accomplishment, including awards, honours, certifications, and recommendations, written evaluations by teachers or peers, and self- reflections written by students.

Online portfolios are often called digital portfolios or e-portfolios, among other terms. Portfolios may also be presented-publicly or privately-to parents, teachers, and community members as part of a demonstration of learning or exhibition.

Scope of Portfolio

·        Student portfolios are most effective when they are used to evaluate student learning progress and achievement. Also teachers can use them to improve instructional strategies.

·        Portfolios can help teachers monitor and evaluate learning progress over time. Portfolios can document how students have grown, matured, and improved as learners over the course of a project, school year, or multiple years. For example, multiple versions of an essay can show how students revised and improved their work based on feedback from the teachers or their peers

·        Portfolios help teachers determine whether students can apply what they have learned to new problems and different subject areas.

·        Portfolios can encourage students to take more ownership and responsibility over the learning process.

·        Portfolios can improve communication between teachers and parents.

Purpose

·        To show growth- over a time, identify strengths and weakness

·        To showcase abilities- accomplishments, aptitude

·        To evaluate cumulative achievements- for grading purpose, promotion

Evaluation Criteria

·        Best work- Progress made, best performance

·        Evidence of growth-by comparing early and later works

·        Evidence of achievement

Assessment of portfolios can be done with the help of rubrics, viva voce etc.

RUBRIC

Rubrics are tools developed by instructors to assess the performance of their students. This assessment tool lists the dimensions (tasks) of the performance to be evaluated, and the specific criteria used to evaluate each dimension. It also describes the gradation of quality (level) for each dimension.

Rubrics are typically used with assessments that are subjective (presentations, discussions, portfolios) rather than objective.

·        Rubrics make the instructor's expectations clear to students

·        It helps students to evaluate their work.

·        If more than one person is evaluating the performance, it improves consistency and objectivity of grading

Creating a Rubric

The steps to create a rubric are

·        Identify the performance objective: identify the knowledge, skill and attitude the learner should display as a result of instructional activity

·        Identify the dimensions comprising the performance: dimensions are broad concepts or specific tasks the student should demonstrate while performing the activity

·        Identify the potential gradations of quality: gradations are the descriptive levels of quality staring with the worst quality to the best quality. Example for 3 level gradations: poor, average, excellent.

·        Assign a point value to each gradation and a total point value for the assessment: Assign a point value to each gradation of quality and identify total point value for the assessment.

·        Identify the criteria for each level of quality within the dimension: list the specific expectations for each level of gradation.

·        Create a rubric table: rubric will be a table with each dimension in a separate row and each gradation of quality in a separate column.

STUDENT PROFILE

The term "student profile" is used in several different senses in the education community. In all cases, a student profile provides information about a student, but the information can be presented and used in different ways. Student profiles can include data submitted by a student, as well as information which is added by staff members at an educational institution to

provide a complete picture of the student. Access to many types of student profiles is restricted due to concerns about security and privacy.

In a financial aid office, a student profile is used to determine eligibility for financial aid and to keep track of the student's accounts and history at the college. Admissions offices also establish student profiles when students apply to a school. The profile is often electronic so that it can be easily tracked and sent to various members of the admissions office for review.

POSTER ASSESSMENT

A poster presentation is as an experiential learning activity that stimulates curiosity and interest, encourages exploration and integration of concepts and provides students with a novel way of demonstrating understanding.

Posters:

·        are an excellent alternative medium for developing communication skills

·        involve students in the assessment process,

·        encourage students to investigate a topic thoroughly,

·        provide opportunities for peer-learning. promote a positive attitude in students,

·        exploring and confronting misconceptions.

What constitute a good Poster

·        The Message: One key concept

·        The Design: Sketch out a plan; Sub-divide poster into component parts; Title Impact-It is the focal point of your poster, it needs to be possibly large sequence content; catchy, or colourful, clear and use of numbers and colour; Less Text More Graphics Self Explanatory

·        Revisions & Awareness

Merits of Poster assessment

·        It strengthens visual learners.

·        Students enjoy and engage in the activity.

·        Posses good validity.

Demerits of Poster assessment

·        New to students hence they need instruction on how to do it.

·        Not economical in terms of time and space.

·        Students can be nervous of presenting.

Evaluation of Poster

Following are the main indicators of poster assessment

·        Process- procedure in constructing the poster.

·        Product- content knowledge

·        Design- visual and organisational pattern

·        Presentation

OPEN BOOK EXAM

An "open book examination" is one in which examinees are allowed to consult their class notes, textbooks, and other approved material while answering questions. Radical and puzzling though the idea may sound to those who are used to conventional examinations, it is ideally suited to teaching programmes that especially aim at developing the skills of critical and creative thinking

Features of open book examinations

·        In this type of examination, success depends on the quantity of information memorised, and the efficiency with which it is reproduced.

·        It will equip students with the ability to acquire knowledge, to modify existing knowledge on the basis of new experience, to build new knowledge, and to apply available knowledge to solve problems and make intelligent decisions.

·        The purpose of an examination is to test the skills of problem solving and critical thinking. In a closed book examination, the student first copies the information from the textbook to his memory, and then copies it into the answer book. This intermediate stage of memorization is what open book examinations attempt to eliminate. Given the availability of textbooks in the examination room, teachers will not ask questions that require the mere transfer of information from the textbook to the examination book.

Two Types of Open Book Examinations

One may think of two kinds of open book examinations, - the restricted type and the unrestricted type.

In the restricted type of open book examinations, students are permitted to bring into the examination room one or more specific documents approved by the course instructor such as the logarithmic tables, dictionaries, or complete

works of Shakespeare, but no handwritten material or printed documents which have not had prior approval.

In the unrestricted type of open book examinations, students are free to bring whatever they like. They may bring any books, lecture handouts of the course instructor, or their own handwritten notes. The use of such examinations demands that the course focuses on a set of intellectual skills, rather than on the information content, and that no content based questions be asked in the examinations.

Impact on Learning Strategies

A more important reason for using open book examinations is that they have a tremendous impact on promoting the right mental sets in both learning and teaching. The most immediate result on students will be that they will stop "mugging'" or rote learning. It implies that studying should not be equated with memorising; instead, it should be understanding concepts, and using these concepts (along with available information) to practise the skills of modifying and building knowledge, thinking critically, and solving problems.

PARTICIPATORY ASSESSMENT

Participatory assessment is a comprehensive approach to instruction, assessment, and accountability. It is grounded in the theory that assessment is central to learning; students are constantly assessing themselves and being assessed, and it is through these constant self and external (however informal) assessments that learning occurs. All participants in a particular setting are potential learners, including students, teachers, administrators, parents, designers, and researchers, and all have valuable insights to share. Participatory assessment includes multiple levels of assessment; this approach aligns communal discourse to maximize individual understanding in order to indirectly increase aggregated achievement.

PEER ASSESSMENT

Peer assessment involves students taking responsibility for assessing the work of their peers against set assessment criteria. They can therefore be engaged in providing feedback to their peers (sometimes referred to as peer review), summative grades (moderated by you or your colleagues), or a combination of the two. It's a powerful way for your students to act as the 'assessor and to gain an opportunity to better understand assessment criteria. It can also transfer some ownership of the assessment process to them, thereby

potentially increasing their motivation and engagement. In doing so, your students might be encouraged to learn more deeply, building up their understanding, rather than just their knowledge of the facts, as well as gaining an insight into their own approach to an assessment task in comparison to their peers.

Implementing Peer Assessment most effectively

·        Use clear guidelines and make the guidelines easy to implement.

·        Fully train students on the implementation and importance of the guidelines.

·        Require assessors to justify their judgments.

·        Create a classroom environment that feels safe for interpersonal risk- taking so that students will feel more confident in evaluating their peers.

·        Share the responsibility of the final grade between the instructor and students if concern exists about student bias.

·        Emphasize to students that the main focus of their peer assessment should be useful feedback, not grading.

·        Use small feedback groups so that feedback can be explained and discussed with the receiver.

·        Encourage students to be as supportive as possible in critiquing the work of other students.

·        Stress benefits of being a peer assessor to students, such as it helps them evaluate their own work and become more self-directed learners.

·        Train students how to interpret feedback so that they can make appropriate connections between the feedback received and the quality of their work.

Advantages:

·        Encourages student involvement and responsibility.

·        Encourages students to reflect on their role and contribution to the process of the group work.

·        Focuses on the development of student's judgment skills.

·        Students are involved in the assessment process and are encouraged to take part ownership of this process.

·        Provides more relevant feedback to students as it is generated by their peers.

Disadvantages:

·        Not economical in terms of time.

·        The process has a degree of risk as peer pressure to apply elevated grades or friendships may influence the assessment.

·        Students will have a tendency to award everyone the same mark.

·        Students feel ill equipped to undertake the assessment.

·        Students may be reluctant to make judgments regarding their peers.

 

3.2        Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation - Credit and semester system - Scholastic, co-scholastic, non-scholastic evaluation - -Internal assessment -- Grading - direct and indirect

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) refers to a system of school- based evaluation of students that covers all aspects of students’ development. It is a developmental process of assessment which emphasizes on two fold objectives. These objectives are continuity in evaluation and assessment of broad based learning and behavioural outcomes on the other.

In this scheme the term continuous' is meant to emphasise that evaluation of identified aspects of students' growth and development' is a continuous process rather than an event, built into the total teaching-learning process and spread over the entire span of academic session. It means regularity of assessment, frequency of unit testing, diagnosis of learning sops, use corrective measures, retesting and for their self evaluation.

The second term "comprehensive' means that the scheme attempts to cover both the scholastic and the co-scholastic aspects of students' growth and development. Since abilities, attitudes and aptitudes can manifest themselves in forms other then the written word, the term refers to application of variety of tools and techniques (both testing and non-testing) and aims at assessing a learner's development in areas of learning like

·        Knowledge

·        Understanding/Comprehension

·        Applying

·        Analyzing

·        Evaluating

·        Creating

The scheme is thus a curricular initiative, attempting to shift emphasis from testing to holistic learning. It aims at creating good citizens possessing sound

health, appropriate skills and desirable qualities besides academic excellence. It is hoped that this will equip the learners to meet the challenges of life with confidence and success. Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation Education aims at making children capable of becoming responsible, productive and useful members of society. Knowledge skills and attitudes are built through learning experiences and opportunities created for learners in school. It is in the classroom that learners can analyse and evaluate their experiences, learn to doubt, to question to investigate and to think independently.

An understanding of learners, educational aims, the nature of knowledge, and the nature of the school as a social space can help us arrive at principles to guide classroom practices. Conceptual development is thus a continuous process of deepening and enriching connections and acquiring new layers of meaning. Alongside is the development of theories that children have about the natural and social worlds, including themselves in relation to others, which provide them with explanations for why things are the way they are, the relationships between causes and effects, and the bases for decisions and acting. Attitudes, emotions and values are thus an integral part of cognitive development, and are linked to the development of language, mental representations, concepts and reasoning. As children's meta-cognitive capabilities develop, they become more aware of their own beliefs and capable of regulating their own learning.

Objectives of CCE

·        To help develop cognitive, psychomotor and affective skills.

·        To lay emphasis on thought process and de-emphasise memorization

·        To make evaluation an integral part of teaching-learning process

·        To use evaluation for improvement of students achievement and teaching leaning strategies on the basis of regular diagnosis followed by remedial instruction

·        To use evaluation as a quality control devise to maintain desired standard of performance

·        To determine social utility, desirability or effectiveness of a programme and take appropriate decisions about the learner, the process of learning and the learning environment

·        To make the process of teaching and learning a learner-centred activity

Advantages of CCE

1.  Stress: CCE reduces the stress on students by:

·        Identifying learning progress of students at regular time intervals on small portions of content.

·        Encouraging learning through employment of a variety of teaching aids and techniques.

·        Employing a variety of remedial measures of teaching based on learning needs and potential of different students.

·        Recognizing and encouraging specific abilities of students, who do not excel in academics but perform well in other co-curricular areas.

2.    Overall Personality Development: The regular monitoring of the student will eventually help in the proper grooming of the student and will help him realize his strengths and weaknesses in multiple fields. Overcoming the weaknesses will in turn help him develop his aptitude in multiple areas.

3.    Generating Interest: The increased emphasis on sports and co-curricular activities will help in creating interest among students. Group activities and stage performances will build up their confidence which will eventually help them in future (probably during group discussions and interviews). In short, it is an attempt to merge fun with studies.

4.    De-emphasize memorization: The examinations under CCE pattern are so designed that they in a way compel students to understand the concepts rather than mugging them up. The need of the hour is to make students realize the power of thinking and help them to develop a thought process. CCE plans on doing exactly that.

5.       Learner-centred activity: Till now, the teaching and learning were dependent mostly on teachers and the available curriculum. Any deviation from the curriculum and syllabus was considered as sin. CCE encourages teaching and learning to be a "learner centred activity' i.e. students' interest and choice is given the priority

6.   Flexibility: The CCE pattern allows different schools and in turn teachers the freedom to conduct the tests in their own way.

7.   Pattern of education: The old pattern of deciding the fate of a student by the single exam at the end of academic year has been scraped off. The CCE pattern ensures several tests are conducted throughout the year, both written and orals.

8.       Evaluation: Since CCE follows Criterion-Referenced Grading System, students are not competing with each other and are thus more likely to actively help each other learn. A student's grade is not influenced by the calibre of the class.

Disadvantages of CCE

·        The grading system is the biggest disadvantage because students scoring 90 to 99 marks are both kept on Grade A+. There is no segregation. So it could be described as unfair for the students scoring the higher marks.

·        One other shortcoming is the fact that huge numbers of students are grouped together. (For example, last year there were 348 students in Navi Mumbai at Universal Tutorials all scoring more than 90%). So ranking is not possible. Hence the admission process for the Standard XI is difficult.

·        A lot of people argue that CCE makes the students take their boards lightly.

·        Students are forced to study all round the year, which in a way, is like giving no rest to them. Each and every activity is monitored constantly.

·        The internal exam papers are evaluated by school teachers, which mean that there is a huge possibility of favouritism.

·        Endless projects and student's dependency on the internet is hampering their creativity in a way, with no outside knowledge.

·        There has been an introduction of language labs for conducting listening and speaking classes in Hindi and English. However, a lot of students do not have the infrastructure and facility for the same.

·        Multiple tests throughout the year.

·        Reduced quality of knowledge and skills.

·        Most of the teachers are unable to finish their portions as time is wasted for unnecessary activities, projects, assignments, etc. They just rush through the portion without making the students understand and then they give a whole load of projects and homework.

·        Forced to participate in all the events, even the ones that hate it.

·        Students don't get enough time for self study and preparing for competitive exams and extra studies.

·        Concentrating student's towards their assignments and projects rather than their studies.

·        CCE guarantees that no students will fail with whole pass system, the achievement test cannot act as an indicator to progress.

·        Loss of competition and future degradation of a student.

Credit and Semester System

University Grants Commission has come up with the Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) programme, in which the students have a choice to choose from the prescribed courses, which are referred as core, elective or minor or soft skill courses and they can learn at their own pace and the entire assessment is graded-based on a credit system. The basic idea is to look into the needs of the students so as to keep up-to-date with development of higher education in India and abroad. CBCS aims to redefine the curriculum keeping pace with the liberalisation and globalisation in education. CBCS allows students an easy mode of mobility to various educational institutions spread across the world along with the facility of transfer of credits earned by students.

Features of CBCS

·        This is a uniform CBCS for all central and state and other recognised universities.

·        There are three main courses: Core, Elective and Foundation.

·        There are also non-credit courses available which will be assessed as 'Satisfactory' or ‘Unsatisfactory'. This is not included in the computation of SGPA/ CGPA.

·        All the three main courses will be evaluated and accessed to provide for an effective and balanced result.

Basic elements of Credit system

·        Semesters: The assessment is done semester wise. A student progresses on the basis of the courses taken rather than time like three years for science, arts, commerce or four years for engineering etc. Each semester will have 15-18 weeks of academic work which is equal to 90 teaching days. There is flexibility in creating the curriculum and assigning credits based on the course content and hours of teaching.

·        Credit system: Each course is assigned a certain credit. When the student passes that course, he earns the credits which are based on that course. If a student passes a single course in a semester, he does not have to repeat that course later. The students can earn credits according to his pace.

·        Credit transfer: If for some reasons, he cannot cope with the study load or if he falls sick, he has the freedom to study fewer courses and earn fewer credits and he can compensate this in the next semester.

·        Comprehensive continuous assessment: There is a continuous evaluation of the student not only by the teachers but also by the student himself.

·        Grading

UGC has introduced a 10-point grading system as follows: O (Outstanding): 10

A+ (Excellent): 9 A (Very Good): 8 B+ (Good): 7

B (Above Average): 6 C (Average): 5

P (Pass): 4

F (Fail): 0

Ab (Absent): 0

Advantages of Choice Based Credit System

·        The CBCS offers a 'cafeteria' approach in which the students can cho0se courses of their own choice.

·        The credit system allows a student to study what he prefers in his own sequence as per his interests.

·        They can learn at their own pace.

·        They can opt for additional courses and can achieve more than the required credits.

·        They can also opt for an interdisciplinary approach to learning.

·        Inter college/university migration within the country and outside becomes easy with the transfer of Credits. This means that it will be easier for foreign universities to come and offer courses in India.

·        Can opt for one part of the course in one institute and the other part in another institute. This will help in making a clear choice between good and bad colleges/ institutes.

·        The students have more scope to enhance their skills and more scope of taking up projects and assignments, vocational training, including entrepreneurship.

·        The system improves the job opportunities of students.

·        The system will help in enabling potential employers assess the performance of students on a scientific scale.

Disadvantages of CBCS

·        Not very easy to estimate the exact marks.

·        Teachers' workload may fluctuate.

·        Needs proper and good infrastructure for a universal spread of education.

Conclusion: It is too early to say whether CBCS will be successful or not. The UGC has always initiated measures to bring efficiency and excellence in the Higher Education System of India. The basic motive is to expand academic quality in all aspects, right from the curriculum to the learning-teaching process to examination and evaluation systems. However, so far multiple methods are followed by different universities across the country towards examination, evaluation and grading system. Considering this diversity, the implementation of the choice based credit system seems to be a good system in assessing the overall performance of a student in a universal way of a single grading system.

Semester System

The key facets of the new semester system are as follows:

·        Two semesters of five to six months in duration, versus academic terms spread over 10 to 12 months.

·        Credits based on the workload of the learner, with one credit point generally corresponding to 30 to 40 learning hours.

·        Comprehensive       continuous        assessment        (versus       end-of-year examinations).

·        New assessment protocols based on grades rather than marks, and the use of cumulative grade point scores to define overall achievement.

·        Curricular flexibility and increased options for student mobility.

·        Regular updates to curriculum.

Scholastic, Co-scholastic and Non scholastic evaluation Scholastic Evaluation

The desirable behaviour related to the learner's knowledge, understanding, application, evaluation, analysis, and creating in subjects and the ability to apply it in an unfamiliar situation are some of the objectives in scholastic domain.

In National Policy on Education (NPE) document, 1986 and as modified in 1992 also it is mentioned that the scheme of evaluation should cover all learning experiences of scholastic subjects and non-scholastic areas. Comprehensive evaluation would necessitate the use of a variety of techniques and tools. This will be so because different specific areas of learner's growth can be evaluated through certain special techniques.

Co-Scholastic Evaluation

Co-Scholastic Areas of Assessment: These areas focus on enhancing the skills of a student in general knowledge, environmental education, physical Education, art, music and dance and computers.

The evaluation under this category mainly comprises of

Thinking Skills- under this activity, there are various task which include self- awareness, problem solving, decision making, critical and creative thinking.

Social Skills- These skills includes Interpersonal relationship, effective communication and empathy.

Emotional Skills- Under the emotional skills, the area covers managing emotions as well as dealing with stress.

Work Education- Our School's work education mostly covers computer operation and maintenance.

Visual and Performing Arts- Music (Vocal, Instrumental), Dance, Drama, Drawing, Painting, Craft, Sculpture, Puppetry, Folk Art forms etc.

Attitude and Values- Students are taught the importance of good values and attitude towards teachers, School-mates, School Programs and Environmental, and Value systems.

Non scholastic Evaluation

Non-scholastic abilities are concerned with the learner's attitude, interest, values, feelings, habits, social interactions which cannot be assessed directly. This can be done indirectly by observing the behaviour of the learner and his experiences, through biographies, self reports check lists etc.

Non scholastic abilities are important in shaping the personality of the individual which is not evaluated in examinations. Ability is defined as the power and skills, especially to do, think, act and make. The word scholastic

means "of or concerning schools and teaching". By implication, the term non- scholastic can be taken to mean, "not of or concerning schools and teaching'" In general, non scholastic abilities include those abilities which are not traditionally taught ad evaluated in schools. These abilities reflect the later performances of the student as professionals. Our assessment systems in school level are mainly based on percentages the student gets in a test. On basis of this we try to certify the child as intelligent or a slow learner. These days lots of schools are focusing on the holistic development, which is also known as all round development of the child. l The school has now emerged as a place where a student acquires various skills. Effective schools follow a holistic approach to education in an integrated development stresses on physical, mental, moral and social aspects. A holistic approach to education at the elementary level is a must, as it is the most important subsection of the whole education system.

Internal Assessment

Internal assessment, or curriculum-embedded assessment, evaluates what students do when they are in the classroom. Internal assessment is a crucial part of the instruction process in art and aids teachers, students, and parents in evaluating student progress. Internal assessment illustrates aspects of student progress that are not typically evaluated in external assessment.

The qualitative assessment of learner's behaviour changes by way of internal judgment is known as internal assessment.

Internal assessment also serves as a basis for professional development. Teachers who analyze the work of their students will see trends in student performance that may be related to instruction. For example, a teacher who sees that the products of his/her art students lack depth may wish to take advanced art courses to elicit more depth in student products.

An ongoing practice of internal assessment enables teachers to monitor learning as part of their teaching process. Teachers can make data-based decisions to adjust instructional strategies so that they accommodate the different needs and learning styles of students. Data also aid students in self- assessment by providing them with critical feedback. Though teachers sometimes design specific tasks to address particular concepts or skills, any student product and learning process can be viewed as an assessment tool and can provide teachers with valuable information on current levels of student performance, particularly useful examples of internal assessment are

checklists, student journals, in-class work, peer reviews, conferencing, and portfolios.

Advantages of Internal Assessment

·        Examination based on mere rote memory of the students can be avoided.

·        Internal assessment helps to minimise the over anxiety and nervousness among the students, which otherwise affect the students at the time of examination.

·        Learners will be motivated to actively participate in both curricular and co-curricular activities.

·        It helps to identify the strength and weakness of the students in the various aspects and to impart the remedial instruction.

·        It brings about a desirable change in the attitude towards, interests in and appreciation of students and teachers towards the various types of school programmes.

·        It is a universally accepted principle that one who imparts instruction is the best person to assess the students. Internal assessment makes it possible.

Disadvantages of Internal Assessment

·        Personal prejudice and subjectivity are likely to creep in and this may adversely affect the quality assessment.

·        Lack of basic infrastructure facilities of the school may adversely affect the right assessment.

·        Lack of enthusiasm and interest of the teachers may adversely affect effective assessment

Grading

Grading is different method of communicating measurement of students' achievement. When students' level of performance are classified into few classificatory units using letter grades, the system of assessment is called grading system. Grading is considered to be more scientific way of evaluation as it solves the problems of borderline cases by inculcating all the pupils falling within a wider range within the same grade. In grading students are categorised not ranked. Grades represent a range and tend to overcome the possible error of judgement. It is a process of classifying students based on predefined standards. Grades are used for conveying student's performance

with reference to specified criterion and also the relative position of students in their group. Grading can be done either directly or indirectly.

Types of grading Direct grading

In direct grading, judgement of any given phenomena skills, personality traits by evaluator in terms of most appropriate letter grade without assigning the scores. In exanimation, the evaluator will award a particular grade to the answer for each individual question based on its quality.

Indirect grading

It is the method of awarding grades through marks. Marks are awarded to the individual questions based on prescribed marking scheme.

Absolute grading

In absolute grading, some fixed ranges of scores are determined in advance for each grade. The score obtained by a student in a subject is converted to corresponding grade. This grading is criterion referenced and keeps tasks in mind without any variability.

Relative grading

Here the grade range is not fixed in advanced. The fundamental premise of relative grading is that if an evaluation result is plotted on a graph, the graph will assume the form of a normal probability curve. Relative grading is norm referenced and focuses on the variability in the quality of students.

Module 4-1Introduction to Research

4.1      Meaning, need & significance, characteristics and scope of research

Meaning of Research

The term research is derived from the French word 'rechercher' means travel through. Research is basically the search for knowledge. It is an in-depth inquiry into a problem which needs an amicable solution.

Travers defines research as an activity directed toward the development of an organized body of scientific knowledge about the events with which educators are concerned.

Research endeavour to discover answers to intellectual and practical problems through the application of scientific method. Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information in order to increase the understanding of the phenomenon.

Need for Research in Education

Research in education helps the teachers to become more efficient in their tasks. For effective teaching, mastery of the subject matter only is not sufficient; the teacher has to understand his students and select proper teaching methods, communication strategies etc. In research educationists, teachers and researchers combine their resources, and expertise and work together to make available effective education to maximum number of students within a short period of time and at a minimum cost through the use of technology and techniques of teaching. In the words of Lahiri, research economizes effort, prevents wastage, increases efficiency and reach to vitalize and dignify the work of the teacher.

Characteristics of Research

Best and Khan (1992, pp. 18-20) have summarized the main characteristics of research as given below.

·       Research is directed toward the solution of a problem

·       Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles and theories

·       Research is based on observable experience or empirical evidence

·       Research demands accurate observation and description

·       Research involves gathering new data from primary source or using the existing data for new purpose

·       Research is carefully designed procedure

·       Research requires expertise

·       Research strives to be objective and logical

·       Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems

·       Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity

·       Research is carefully recorded and reported

·       Research sometimes requires courage

Scope of Research

·       Advancement of knowledge is the essential purpose of any research activity

·       It brings to light information that might never be discovered fully during the ordinary course of time.

·       Establishes generalizations and general laws and contributes to theory building in various fields of knowledge

·       Verifies and tests existing facts and theory

·       General laws developed through research may enable us to make reliable predictions of events yet to happen.

·       Aims to analyse inter relationships between variables and to derive causal explanations

·       Research aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for a better study of unknown phenomena.

·       Aims at planning and thus contributes to national devclopmen

·       Brings out factual data on prevailing situations and problems for drawing up plans on a realistic basis

·       Research helps to achieve goals of education.

·       Vital tool for social as well as national development.

4.2   Types of research- fundamental, applied

There are various types of research. Based on nature and utility there are two;

1.     Basic/Pure/Fundamental Research

2.     Applied/Field Research

Fundamental Research

Here the goal of research is development of theories by the discovery of broad generalization or principles. In fundamental research, sampling is carefully employed in order to extend the findings beyond the group or situation. Research that leads to knowledge for knowledge sake is called fundamental research. It adds further knowledge to the actual knowledge. Usually it is carried out in laboratory or other sterile environments, sometimes with animals. Learning theories and scientific principles are outcomes of fundamental research.

Characteristics of Basic Research

·        Based on belief knowledge for knowledge's sake.

·        Involves collection and analysis of data to develop or enhance theory.

·        Leads to advancement of knowledge

·        It takes place in sterile environment

·        It is carried out for understanding theoretical relationship between variables

·        It is explanatory in nature

·        Its application may or may not have any bearing on any application in the immediate future or even after a long time.

·        Basic research lays down the foundation for the applied science that follows

Applied Research

Applied research adapts the theories developed fundamental research to the solution of a problem. Applied research is conducted in a field of common practice and is concerned with the application and development of research based knowledge about that practice. Applied research tests the usefulness of scientific theories and determines empirical and analytical relationship within a given field. Applied research adds to the research based knowledge in the given field. The effects of applied research are felt indirectly over a period of time.

Characteristics of Applied Research

·        Applied research is solution-specific and addresses practical questions.

·        It involves collection and analysis of data to examine the usefulness of theory in solving practical educational problems

·        It can be explanatory for usually descriptive

·        It involves precise measurement of the characteristics and describes relationships between variables of a study.

·        Seeks to answer a question in the real world and solves the problem.

·        Applied only to a specific problem.

·       

Fundamental Research Applied Research Advances fundamental knowledge Applies fundamental knowledge Directly or indirectly involves in the development of theory Concerned with application of theory to the solution of problem Concerned with establishing general principles of learning Concerned with its utility I educational settings Application to a large population or society Applicable for a particular group Theoretical in nature Practical in nature Utility is Universal Utility is Limited

The effects of applied research are felt indirectly over a period of time. The distinction between these two researches is given below:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4.3   Action Research-conceptual view-steps

Action Research

Action research is research used by teachers, supervisors and administrators to improve the quality of their decisions and actions (Good, 1959). Research focuses on immediate application, not on the development of theory or on general applications is called action research. Its findings are evaluated in terms of local acceptability not universal validity. It has placed its emphasis on a problem here and now in a local setting. Action research is nothing more than the application of common sense or good management to a felt need.

Characteristics of Action Research

·       Directs towards an immediate solution to a problem

·       In action research consumer is the researcher

·       The solution of the problem are put in practice and evaluated

·       Solution is searched by employing scientific techniques

·       Limited to a classroom or an institution

·       Generalization is unnecessary

·       It can be carried out by individual or group

·       Any method of research can be used such as quantitative or qualitative.

Action research is considered as a cyclic process where the solution is applied and gets evaluated.

 

 

ACTION

PLANNING                                                              MONITORING

 

 

 

REFLECTION

 

 

Steps in action research

1.     Identification of the problem

The first step in action research is identification of the problem. Because only when a researcher becomes conscious of the presence of a problem, then only, he thinks about a solution for that. In order to recognize a problem, it is necessary for the teacher to be objective and practical in his approach. For this the teacher needs a healthy outlook and profound generosity of spirit so that he should realize the short comings of his methods of teaching. The problem of action research can be located mainly from the following sources.

a.     Problem concerning teaching or learning

b.     Problem concerning examination

c.      Problem concerning co-curricular activities

d.     Problems regarding administration and organization of institution

 

2.     Defining and delimiting the problem

Once the problem has been recognized and identified the next step in action research is defining and delimiting that problem. It is essential that its definition should contain no word the meaning of which is not precise and clear. Delimiting the problem implies that its sphere should

be determined because a scientific analysis of a problem is not possible if its sphere is not definite.

 

3.     Listing the probable causes of the problem

The researcher much collects systematic information and when the causes are listed this information is also related to various causes. This helps to verify the cases. In analyzing the causes the following elements are taken with special care;

·        Logical relevance

·        Testable

·        Specificity

·        Authenticity

·        Control

·        Formulation of action hypothesis

 

4.     Analysis of the causes and formulation of the action hypotheses

5.     Action programme

6.     Evaluation of the action programme

Once the action hypothesis for the solution has been arrived, all that immediately remains is to test it. Such a test helps to determine evidence that favours or contradict it. For this the research worker must create a definite outline of research and in this outline all the elements effecting research are clearly stated.

 

7.     Follow-up and communicating the findings to others Example of an action research

Example 1: Action research for doing away with the habit of copying on the

part of the students

1.     Identification and specification of the problem: A mathematics teacher at the time of practice and drill work finds that some 'of the students are not able to solve the problems in spite of the fact that

(i)                 the topic has been taught to them in the class

(ii)               the problems have already been assigned to them in the form of home assignments to provide opportunity for practice work

(iii)             while checking the home assignments, the teacher has found that they have correctly solved the problem

2.     Defining and delimiting the problem

The teacher goes deep in the problem. How have they been able to solve these problems in their home assignment? The problem thus identified can be further specified as "Copying of the solutions of problems of Mathematics given as home assignment from guide by some students of IX class"

 

3.     Listing the probable causes of problems:

The possible causes concerning the problem can be listed as:

·        The assignments are given only from text books for which readymade solution are available in the guide

·        The students are afraid of punishments

·        The students do not want tax their brains

·        Lack of reasoning and problem solving ability among the students

·        No proper supervision of homework by the teacher

 

4.     Analysis of probable causes and formulation of action hypothesis

From the probable causes, those most relevant to the problem and situation in the school are selected. These will form the action hypothesis.

For example one of the hypotheses may run as "if the problems are constructed by the teacher himself/herself and solution of the problem is not found in the guide, the habit of copying from guide can be checked"

5.     Action programme

Here, on the basis of action hypothesis, some action is taken in prevailing situation and the relevant evidence is gathered.

For the present problem, the action plan may go as: Action to be taken: Conducting test in the class

Procedure: The teacher will assign the problems and supervise the class practice work

 

6.     Evaluation of the action programme:

After repeating action programme for the number of different topics in the class, the teacher will try to know whether the students have abandoned the habit of copying or not. For this purpose, they will be assigned problem from their textbooks and from the stock of the teacher's self-made problems. On the basis of this evaluation, the hypothesis framed will be either established or rejected.

7.     Follow-up and communicating the findings to others:

The results arrived at, may, then be used by the teacher for bringing improvement in his own practices. He may, thus, gain opportunity for verifying the results of his action research before communicating them to others for similar uses

 

4.4   Teacher as a researcher– action research and research projects

 

Teaching, learning and research always moves together. It is said that an effective teacher should be a good researcher. The role of a teacher as a researcher can be summarized as four heads. They are

1.     Teacher as facilitator

As a facilitator, teacher should encourage the students to takc up research and should provide opportunities that lead to scientific inquiry and research. In spite of that teacher should be guide and facilitator to the students.

2.     Teacher as a collaborator

As a collaborator teacher should keep in touch with the recent researches in his field of interest and education. Teacher should also be ready to change his behaviour according to research findings. Such a teacher can improve his teaching procedure.

3.     Teacher as manager

An effective teacher will be able to manage three functions in his career. They are effective teaching, meaningful leaning and scientific research.

4.     Teacher as an input

Teacher should provide knowledge, skill, attitude and values which leads to research and development.

Scope of Research in Education

Problems in education are innumerable. They can be variously classified under different beads such as: curriculum, text books and syllabus, child development skills, guidance and counselling, methods of teaching, equipments and aids in teaching, history of education, philosophy of education etc, each of these fields offers a number of problems for research.

Research Projects

Research project, is a kind of systematic investigation into the established facts. Here researchers try to find out answer to the questions posed by scientific theories and hypotheses. A research project allows us to design, plan,

execute, analyse and finally disseminate our research ides. Aim of Research project is the progression of scientific research. Research project comprises of creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications. Usually scientific research projects require massive capital investment but are expected to yield very significant results.

Funding Agencies in India

Funding agencies are Govt. or Non-govt. body providing monitory grants for scientific research Areas-Science and Technology, Social sciences, etc. In India various funding agencies are available which provide grants for a research in a various field. These agencies conduct research schemas to promote the research in India in science and/or social science and provide a grant for research. Research funding is a term generally covering any funding for scientific research projects, in the areas of both science and technology and social science. It is a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding.

Some examples

(1)  University Grants Commission (UGC)

UGC strives to promote teaching and research in emerging areas in Humanities, Social Sciences, Languages, Literature, Pure Sciences, Engineering & Technology, Pharmacy, Medical, Agricultural Sciences etc.

 

UGC provides financial assistance for both Major and Minor Research Projects

 

Objectives

 

·        To promote excellence in research in higher education by supporting research programmes of University and College teachers in various disciplines.

·        Traditionally, universities have been the centres of research. Although, the Government has a network of science and technology laboratories for research and development, the major base of researchers in science and technology remains with the universities. Therefore, university and college teachers need to be supported to meet this requirement.

(2)  Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR)

ICSSR provides grant to scholars to conduct research in various fields of Social Sciences which have a theoretical, conceptual, and methodological or policy orientation on the subject of their choice.

 

(3)  SCERT

(4)  NCERT

(5)  Department of Science and Technology (DST)

(6)  Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

(7)  Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)

(8)  Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF)

Module 5 - Statistics in Education

 

Definition

Statistics is a branch of scientific methodology. It deals with collection, classification, description, and interpretation of data obtained by the conduct of survey and experiments. It’s essential purpose is to describe and draw inferences about the numerical properties of the populations".

George Ferguson.

The word statistics stands for

·        Numerical facts

·        Method or methods of dealing with numerical facts

·        Summarized figures of numerical facts.

5.1   Need and importance of statistics in education

Statistics renders valuable services in:

1.     The collection of evidences or facts (numerical or otherwise)

2.     The classification, organisation and summarization of numerical facts.

3.     Drawing general conclusions and inferences or making predictions.

Based on the above mentioned services statistics plays an indispensable role in education in various areas as given below

a.     Day-to-day tasks in education.egs:

·        systematic arrangement of data related to students, teachers etc

·        knowing individual differences of students

·        rendering guidance to students.

·        comparing suitability of methods of teaching

·        making predictions

·        collect and present educational facts in a systematic manner

·        classify the data

·        Analyse the results of examinations

·        Comparing the standards of students

 

b.     Measurement and evaluation

c.      Educational researches

5.2      Classification and tabulation of data –need and procedure- Graphical representation of data - bar diagram, histogram, pie diagram, frequency polygon, frequency curve, cumulative frequency curve.

·        Classification of data is the process of arranging the data in groups or classes according to their common characteristics.

·        Classification is the grouping of related facts into classes.

·        It is the process of arranging data into sequences and groups according to their common characteristics or separating them into different but related parts.

Tabulation refers to the systematic arrangement of the information in rows and columns. Tabulation involves the orderly and systematic presentation of numerical data in a form designed to elucidate the problem under consideration.

Need of Tabulation

1.     To make complex data simple for easy understanding.

2.     To make the data brief. It can be easily presented in graphs.

3.     To convert numerical figures in an attractive form.

4.     For easy analyze of the data.

5.     To save time for understanding and space for description.

6.     To easily identify the data from the title of the table.

Graphical representation of data

A graphic representation is the geometrical image of a set of data. It is a mathematical picture. The transformation of data through visual methods like graphs, diagrams maps and charts is called graphical representation of data

Advantages of graphical representation of data.

1.     The data can be presented in a more attractive and an appealing form.

2.     It provides more lasting effect on brain.

3.     It is possible to have an immediate and meaningful grasp of large amounts of data through graphic representation.

4.     Comparison of data is easy through graphs.

5.     It helps to get an easy correlation of two variables.

6.     It carries a lot of communication power.

7.     It helps for forecasting.

There are many forms of representing data graphically. Some of them are

a.     Bar diagram

b.     Histogram;

c.      Pie-diagram

d.     Frequency polygon;

e.     Frequency curve; and

f.       Cumulative frequency curve

A detailed description regarding each of these forms are given here.

Bar diagram

In bar diagrams the data is represented by bars. In it frequencies are displayed on one axis and variable along the other axis. The frequencies are represented by the lengths of the bars.

Construction of bar diagram

1.     Draw two lines perpendicular to each other as x and y axis.

2.     Along horizontal axis take values of variables and along the vertical axis take the frequencies.

3.     Along the horizontal axis choose uniform width of bars.

4.     Take a suitable scale to determine the heights of the bars.

5.     Draw the bars according to the scale.

6.     Bars can be shaded.

Eg: The strength of students in a school is given below. Using this data a bar diagram is drawn.

 

 

Year	No of Students
2010 -2011	900
2011 - 2012	1000
2012 - 2013	950
2013 - 2014	900
2014 - 2015	850
2015 - 2016	700

Bar diagram showing strength of students in a school.

There are two types of bar diagrams They are

1.     Simple bar diagram

2.     Multiple bar diagram

Simple bar diagrams are constructed using one variable. It is used for an immediate comparison.

Multiple bar diagrams are constructed to represent two or more variables for the purpose of comparison.

Histogram

A histogram is a representation of a frequency distribution by means of rectangles whose width represents class intervals and the lengths are proportional to the corresponding frequencies.

Construction of histogram

·        Draw X and Y axis.

·        The class limits are marked on the X axis and frequencies on the Y axis.

·        Draw rectangles with class intervals as the bases and the corresponding frequencies as heights.

·        Thus a rectangle is constructed on each class interval.

Eg: Using the following data a histogram is drawn below

Scores	Frequency
10-19	6
20-29	13
30-39	18
40-49	12
50-59	8
60-69	5

Histogram of the frequency distribution.

 

Pie-diagram

In this form of graphical representation, the data is represented through the sections or portions of a circle. The angle of each section is calculated using the formula:

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜ƒ 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =

ƒ𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜ƒ 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ƒ𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦     × 360

 

 

Steps of construction of pie diagram

·        Calculate angle of sectors to represent each category

·        Select suitable radius for the circle to be drawn

·        Draw a radius in the circle.

·        Measure the angles of sectors concerned and join for completing the sectors.

·        Complete the diagram by adding title, sub title and by giving shading.

Example

In a panchayat there are 750 students in standard 8, 420 students in standard IX and 630 students in standard X. Using this data a pie diagram is drawn.

Total number of students 750+420+630= 1800

750

Standard VIII: 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =

1800

420

× 360 = 150

Standard IX: 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =

1800

630

× 360 = 84

Standard X: 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =

1800

× 360 = 126

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

STD VIII STD IX STD X

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pie diagram showing the strength of students.

Frequency polygon

Frequency polygons are graphical representation of frequency distributions. They are polygons in shape. These are drawn as follows.

·        Mid-points of all classes are calculated and marked on the x -axis.

·        Two extra class intervals, one above and the other below the given classes are calculated and marked on the x-axis.

·        Frequencies are plotted along the y- axis

·        Frequencies corresponding to each of the classes (above the mid-points) is plotted.

·        Various points obtained by plotting, the mid-points and frequencies are joined by straight lines.

·        Complete polygon by extending the mid-points of below and above classes.

Example.

The weight of 50 students are given below. Using this data a frequency polygon is drawn.

Class	Frequency
40-44	3
45-49	10
50-54	12
55-59	15
60-64	7
65-69	6

Frequency polygon of weights of students.

 

Frequency Curve

Frequency curve is a graphical representation of grouped data. In order to obtain the frequency curve the mid values of the class intervals are calculated and marked on the x-axis. Then the frequencies with respect to the mid-points are plotted. The points are then joined by smooth curve.

Difference between frequency polygon and frequency curve

·        A frequency polygon is a many sided figure. The sides are obtained by joining the plotted points by straight lines. Whereas in a frequency curve the plotted points are joined by a smooth curve.

·        A frequency polygon we take two extra classes. But the frequency curve we do not take so.

·        A frequency polygon is a closed figure. But the frequency curve is not closed

Cumulative frequency curve

·        It is graphical representation of cumulative frequencies. (When frequencies are continuously added from the lowest class they are called cumulative frequencies)

·        Cumulative frequency curve is obtained by plotting the actual upper limits of the class intervals on the x-axis and the respective cumulative frequencies of these class intervals on the y-axis.

·        Plot one more point on the X axis taking the upper limit of one class lower than the first class.

·        Join the points by a curve.

Example

A cumulative frequency curve is drawn using the following data.

 

 

 

 

 

Marks	Frequency	Cumulative frequency
20-29	3	3
30-39	4	7
40-49	8	15
50-59	6	21
60-69	4	25

Cumulative frequency curve

 

 

5.3   Statistical methods of analysis: - Measures of central tendency - mean, median and mode.- Measures of variability–range and standard deviation

Measures of central tendency

There are situations in our day to day life to select a most representative value from a given set of values. In such situations we find that the members of the group show a tendency to cluster around a central position in the phenomenon. This characteristic is known as central tendency.

A measure of central tendency is a sort of average or typical value and its function is to summarize the series in the terms of this average value. It is a representative showing the characteristics of the group.

The most common measures of central tendency are

a.     Arithmetic mean or mean

b.     Median

c.      Mode

Each of them can be called a representative of the characteristics of the whole group and thus the performance of the group as a whole can be described by the single value.

a. Arithmetic Mean (M)

It can be defined as the sum of all the values of the terms in a series divided by the number of items

 

Calculation of mean of ungrouped data

If 𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3,................. , 𝑥𝑛 are series of n numbers,

The mean 𝑀 = 𝑥1+𝑥2+⋯……+𝑥𝑛

𝑛

 

Eg. 1: Calculate the mean of the scores 2, 6, 2, 8, 3, 7, 7.

2 + 6 + 2 + 8 + 3 + 7 + 7      35

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 =                          7                          = 7 = 5

Eg. 2: Calculate the mean of the data

 

 

Score	5	8	9	10
Frequency	2	4	3	1

 

(5 × 2) + (8 × 4) + (9 × 3) + (10 × 1)      79

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 =

2 + 4 + 3 + 1                          = 10 = 7.9

 

Calculation of Mean of Grouped data

 

It can be calculated using the formula:

 

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑀 =

 

∑ ƒX

 

𝑁

 

where X the mid value of the class interval, f its respective frequency and N the total of all frequencies.

Eg: Calculate the Mean of the following data.

Scores	f	Midpoint (X)	fX
65 – 69 60 – 64 55 - 59	1 3 4	67 62 57	67 186 228

50 - 54	7	52	364
45 - 49	9	47	423
40 - 44	11	42	462
35 - 39	8	37	296
30 - 34	4	32	128
25 - 29	2	27	54
20 - 24	1	22	22
TOTAL	50		2230

 

 

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑀 =

∑ ƒX

𝑁     =

2230

50    = 44.6

 

B. Median

Median is defined as the most central or middle most value of data arranged ether in ascending or descending order of magnitude

Calculation Median of ungrouped data

a) When Nis odd (Not divisible by 2)

 

Md (Median)=

𝑁+1 2

th term

Eg: Calculate Median of the scores; 17,47,15,35,25,39,44.

When arranged in ascending order it becomes 15,17,25,35,39,44,47

 

Here Nis odd. So Md (Median)= N+1 = 7+1-8

𝑁+1

𝑁+1

th term

2

= 4

2

The Median (the 4h item) is 35.

b). When N is even (divisible by 2)

𝑁 𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 + (𝑁 + 1) 𝑡ℎ i𝑡𝑒𝑚

𝑀𝑒𝑑i𝑎𝑛 (𝑀𝑑) = 2                          2                           

2

Eg: Calculate Median of 17, 47, 15, 35, 25, 39, 50, 44

When arranged in ascending order it becomes 15, 17, 25, 35, 39, 44, 47, 50.

N = 8.

 

^𝑁 𝑡ℎ item = 4th item = 35

2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Median of grouped data can be calculated using the formula

𝑁 − 𝐹

𝑀𝑑 = 𝐿 + (2       ) × i

ƒ

 

where:

L = Lower limit of the median class.

F = Total of all frequencies up to the median class.

F = frequency of the median class i = class interval.

N = Total number of frequencies

Eg: Calculate the median of the following frequency distribution.

Scores	f
65-69	1
60-64	3
55-59	4
50-54	7
45-49	9
40-44	11
35-39	8
30-34	4
25-29	2
20-24	1
	N = 50

1

𝑁 − 𝐹

𝑀𝑑 = 𝐿 + (2       ) × i

ƒ

 

 

Median class = 40-44

𝑁

(Median class is the class where F becomes equal to or higher than

2

L = 39.5

 

F = 1+2+4+8 = 15               (Cumulative frequency up to the median class)

N 50; i = 5

f= 11 (frequency of median class)

 

Substituting these values in the formula,

50 − 15

𝑀𝑑 = 39.5 + ( 2            ) × 5 = 39.5 + (

11

 

25 − 15

11

 

50

) × 5 = 39.5 + 11

 

 

= 44.05

 

C. Mode

Mode is the most frequently occurring item of a distribution. Eg. Mode of the scores 10,6,2,10,7,4,5,10, is 10

Bimode: If there are two scores repeated equally but more than the other scores we will say that the distribution possess bi mode. There will have 2 modes.

Eg: 5,7,11,75,9,12,16,33. Here 5 and 7 are considered as modes.

Computation of mode for grouped data

Mode can be calculated using the formula; Mode 3 Md-2 M. Where Md = Median M = Mean.

Merits and Demerits of each of the Measures of Central Tendency

Measure of C.T	Merits	Demerits
Mean	·        It includes all the observations ·        Mean is well defined. So no question of misunderstanding ·        Simple to calculate and easy to understand ·        Capable of further algebraic treatment	·        Affected by extreme scores ·        If a single item is missing. Not possible to calculate ·        Can be a figure which does not exist in the series ·        Sometimes                         gives absurd values. eg: there are 41, 42 & 44 students in standard VIII A, B, and C. Then average student is 42.33 which is absurd
Median	·        Extreme items do not affect ·        Easy to compute ·        All      observations      are      not needed ·        Can be determined from open ended series	·        Not rigidly defined ·        Does not include all observations ·        Requires arrangement of scores in ascending or descending order ·        Sometimes gives values which are not included in the series
Mode	·        Most representative value of the series ·        Not     affected     by     extreme scores ·        Easy to understand ·        Helps in analysing quantitative data	·        Does not include all scores ·        Not defined rigidly ·        Most unstable average ·        Chances for bimodal or multi modal situations

 

 

Measures of variability/ Dispersion

The scattering of the data around the central value is referred as dispersion. That is, the tendency of the scores of a group to deviate from the average or central value is known as dispersion or variability. It tells us to how the "spread out of scores in a group.

There are, chiefly, four measures for indicating variability or dispersion. They are:

1.     Range

2.     Quartile deviation

3.     Mean deviation

4.     Standard deviation.

A detailed description regarding range and standard deviation is given here

Range

Range is defined as the difference between the highest and lowest sores in the given series

Eg: (for ungrouped data): Find the range of the scores 10, 25, 17, 0, 30, 35

Range is 35-9-26.

Range is the simplest measure of variability. It is a very rough measure of variability. It takes only extreme scores into consideration and ignores the variation of the individual terms.

Standard deviation

Standard deviation of a set of scores is defined as the squareroot of the average ff the squares of the deviations of each score from the mean. It is represented by

 

𝑥2

𝜎 = √

𝑁

∑(X − 𝑀)2

= √

𝑁

 

X= Individual score

M = Mean of the scores

N = Total number of scores

x = Deviation of each score from the mean.

Eg (ungrouped data): Calculate SD for the following set of scores 52, 50, 56, 68, 65, 62, 57, 70

Scores	Deviation from the mean (X – M) or x (here M is 60)	𝑥2
52	-8	64
50	-10	100
56	-4	16
68	8	64
65	5	25
62	2	4
57	-3	9
70	10	100
Total		382

 

∑ 𝑥2

𝜎 = √

𝑁

∑(X − 𝑀)2

= √

𝑁

382

= √

8

= √47.75 = 6.91

 

 

SD for grouped data

√∑ ƒ𝑥2

Formula: 𝜎 =

𝑁

 

Eg: Calculate S D for the following distribution.

For calculating S D, first the mean (M) has to be calculated. Then using the mean S.D is calculated as follows

Scores	f	Mid value (X)	fX	x = (X-M)	𝑥2	ƒ𝑥2
127-129	1	128	128	13	169	169
124-126	2	125	250	10	100	200
121-123	3	122	366	7	49	147
118-120	1	119	119	4	16	16
115-117	6	116	696	1	1	6
112-114	4	113	452	-2	4	16
109-111	3	110	330	-5	25	75
106-108	2	107	214	-8	64	128
103-105	1	104	104	-11	121	121
100-102	1	101	101	-14	196	196
Total	N = 24		∑ ƒX = 2760			∑ ƒ𝑥2 = 1074

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 =

∑ ƒX

𝑁     =

2760

24    = 115

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5.4   Measures of Relationship

Concept of Correlation

The relation that exists between a pair of variables is denoted by correlation. Eg: height and weight or intelligence and achievement.

Types of correlation

There are three types of correlation:

(1)   Positive Correlation

(2)   Negative Correlation and

(3)   Zero Correlation.

Positive Correlation

Corresponding to an increase in one variable there exist an increase in the other variable also. OR corresponding to a decrease in one variable there exist a decrease in other variable also.

eg. When height increases weight also increases.

Negative Correlation

Correlation is negative when an increase in one variable corresponds to a decrease in the other variable or a decrease to an increase.

eg. When the practicing time increases, the mistakes in typing decreases.

Zero Correlation

If there exists no relationship between the two variables. eg. Weight and achievement of students in English.

Coefficient of correlation

An index for expressing the degree of relationship quantitatively between two sets of variables is known as coefficient of correlation.

It is a kind of ratio which expresses the extent to which changes in one variable are accompanied by changes in the other variable.

The value of coefficient of correlation varies from -1 to 1

If this value is+1 the correlation is said to be perfectively positive and if it is -1 the correlation is perfectively negative. If this value is 0 it is known as Zero correlation (no correlation)

Speaman's rank order correlation

It is the method of computing the coefficient of correlation using the ranks of individuals in two sets. It is denoted by the Greek Letter 𝜌(rho). The formula for 𝜌 is

 

6 ∑ 𝑑²

𝜌 = 1 − 𝑁(𝑁2 − 1)

 

Individuals Marks in history Marks in civics Rank in history (R1) Rank in civics (R2) R1 – R2 (d) 𝑑2 A 80 82 2 3 -1 1 B 45 86 11 2 9 81 C 55 50 10 10 0 0 D 56 48 9 11 -2 4 E 58 60 8 9 -1 1 F 60 62 7 8 -1 1 G 65 64 6 7 -1 1 H 68 65 5 6 -1 1 I 70 70 4 5 -1 1 J 75 74 3 4 -1 1 K 85 90 1 1 0 0 N = 11           ∑ 𝑑2 = 92

where N is the number of observations and d is the difference in pairs of ranks. Eg 1. Calculate the coefficient of correlation for the following data.

6 ∑ 𝑑²

6 × 92                    23

𝜌 = 1 − 𝑁(𝑁2 − 1) = 1 − 11(112 − 1) = 1 − 55 = 1 − 0.42 = 0.58

Eg 2. Calculate the coefficient of correlation (When same rank repeat)

Individuals	Scores in test 1	Scores in test 2	Rank in test 1 (R1)	Rank in test 2 (R2)	R1 – R2 (d)	𝑑2
A	12	21	8	6	2	4
B	15	25	6.5	3.5	3	9
C	24	35	2	2	0	0
D	20	24	4	5	-1	1
E	8	16	10	9	1	1
F	15	18	6.5	7	-0.5	0.25
G	20	25	4	3.5	0.5	0.25
H	20	16	4	9	-5	25
I	11	16	9	9	0	0
J	26	38	1	1	0	0
N = 10						∑ 𝑑2 = 40.5

 

6 ∑ 𝑑²

6 × 40.5

𝜌 = 1 − 𝑁(𝑁2 − 1) = 1 − 10(102 − 1) = 0.755

Note: Sometimes data may be given in the form

Individuals	A     B     C     D     E     F     G     H     I     J
Scores (X)	12 15 24 20 8     15 20 20 11 26
Scores (Y)	21 25 35 24 16    18 25 16 16 38

 

Interpretation of value of correlation

From 0.00 to ±0.20 slight, almost negligible relationship From ±0.20 to ±0.40 Low correlation

From ±0.41 to± 0.70 Moderate correlation

From ±0.71 to ±0.99 High correlation

±1 perfect correlation

Percentile and Percentile Ranks

A percentile may be defined as a point on the score scale below which a given percent of the cases lie. The first percentile (denoted by P1) will mean a score point in the given series or distribution below which one percent cases lie and above which 99% cases lie. Going further, the 15 percentile (P15) will indicate

that score point below which 15% of the cases lie. Similarly P70 means a score point below which the scores of 70% and above which 30% members of the group fall.

P10, P20, P30, P40... are called as deciles. (Multiples of 10)

Percentile can be calculated by the formula, (Not sure)

 

For ungrouped data

 

𝑃K =

 

𝑛𝑜 𝑜ƒ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 X

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜 𝑜ƒ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠    × 100

 

For grouped data

 X𝑁

 

− 𝐹

𝑃_K = 𝐿 + (100         ) × i

ƒ

 

Where

L is the lower limit of percentile class N is total of all the frequencies

F is total of frequencies before the percentile class. f is frequency of the percentile class

i is size of the class interval

Percentile Rank

It may be defined as the number representing the percentage of the total number of cases lying below the given score

 

 

5.5   Normal Distribution

Meaning of Normal distribution

The literal meaning of the term 'normal is average. If we examine different frequency tables, a particular characteristic can be usually noted regarding the distribution of scores. The majority of the frequencies will be concentrating in the middle and to the both-sides of it the frequencies will be decreasing gradually. At the both the ends the frequencies will be comparatively very less. Such a distribution is called as normal distribution

Eg

Scores in achievement test	No of students (f)
0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69	3 7 11 19 12 6 2
Total	60

 

Normal probability curve (NPC)

It is a curve that graphically represents a normal distribution. In such a distribution the maximum frequencies will be gradually go on decreasing towards the right and left of the centre. Because of this property NPC will show symmetry on either side of its central axis. Hence it will be bell shaped.

 

Characteristics of NPC

1.  For this curve, the mean, median and mode are the same.

2.  It is bell shaped

3.  The curve is perfectly symmetrical. It is not skewed. The value of skewness is zero.

4.   The curve is asymptotic. That is, it approaches but never touches the base line at the extremes.

5.  It extends from minus infinity to plus infinity.

6.  The mean is considered as the starting point.

7.    The curve has its maximum height at the starting point (the mean of the distribution)

8.   The point of inflection of the curve occur at 1 standard deviation (𝜎) above and below the mean.

9.   In the curve 99.74% cases lie from -3𝜎 to +3𝜎. 95.44% lie from -3𝜎 to +2𝜎 and 68.26% cases lie from –𝜎 to +𝜎

10.   In the curve, the limits of the distances 1.96𝜎 include 95% and the limits 2.58𝜎 includes 99%of the total area of the curve.

Note: Even characteristics of NPC are asked a curve of NPC should also be drawn.

Skewness

Skewness refers to the lack of symmetry. A normal curve is a perfectly symmetrical curve. If the NPC is folded along the vertical middle line the two sides of the base line will overlap. Also, for NPC, mean, median and mode will be the same.

In many distributions which deviate from the normal, the values of mean, median and mode are different and there is no symmetry between the right and left halves of the curve. Such distributors are said to be skewed.

There are two types of skewness. The distributions are said to be skewed negatively when there are many individuals in a group with their scores higher than the average score of the group.

Similarty the distributions are said to be skewed positively when there are more individuals in a group with their scores less than the average score of the group.

Skewness can be computed by the formula

3(𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 − 𝑀𝑒𝑑i𝑎𝑛)

𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣i𝑎𝑡i𝑜𝑛

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Kurtosis refers to the peakedness or flatness of the curve. There are 3 types of Kurtosis.

(1)   platy kurtic

(2)   Lepto kurtic.

(3)   Meso kurtic.

A frequency distribution more peaked than normal is said to be "lepto-kurtic, one more flatter than the normal is platy-kurtic and when it is neither too flattened nor too peaked (almost similar to NPC) it is called Meso-kurtic.

 

 

 

 

 

Kurtosis can be calculated using the formula:

𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡i𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣i𝑎𝑡i𝑜𝑛

𝐾𝑢𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑠i𝑠 = 90𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡i𝑙𝑒 − 10𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡i𝑙e

𝐾𝑢 =Q/𝑃90 − 𝑃10